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AUTHOR: 


CASE,  SHIRLEY 
JACKSON 


TITLE: 


THE  REVELATION  OF 

JOHN;  A  HISTORICAL. 


PLACE: 


CHICAGO 


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Case,  Shirley  Jackson,  1872-1947 

The  Revelation  of  John ;  a  historical  interpretation,  by 
Shirley  Jackson  Case  ...  Chicago,  111.,  The  University 
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THE  REVELATION  OF  JOHN 

A  HISTORICAL  INTERPRETATION 


4 


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THE  REVELATION 
OF  JOHN 

A  HISTORICAL  INTERPRETATION 


IHB  UmVERSITT  OP  CHICAGO  PBES8 
CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS 


TBS  BiKIR  *  TAYLOR  COMPAHT 

■■W  TOKK 

THE  CAMBRIDGE  UNIVEBSITT  PRBS 

LOIDOa 

THE  MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA 

•DnO,  OSAIA,   KTOTO,  WVKVOEA,  SKHDAl 

THX  MISSION  BOOK  OOMPAXT 


By 

Shirley  Jackson  Case 

Professor  of  T^arly  Qhurfh  History  and  Netv  Testament 
Interpretat'an  fn  the  tTnh^er'si^yoJ'  Chictgo 


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THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO  PRESS 
CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS 


Copyright  xoiq  By 

»       " '  Tak  tjHIVERilTY  QF  CHICAGO ' 


•     •  • 


«     •  — a- 


■  *  •    'All  Rights  Reserved 


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•  *•*   -  •  ]pu5lis^ecl November «i$ii>l 


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Si&coiid'Imprp$siou  Augu&t  igto 


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■Hg^t^tU     ,_i»*tl-*.*irf 


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Compoaed  and  Printed  By 

The  University  of  Chicago  Press 

Chicago.  lUioois.  U.S.A. 


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A.    ^ 


.1 


PREFACE 

The  purpose  of  the  following  pages  is  to 
explain  the  meaning  of  the  Book  of  Revelation 
as  its  author  intended  it  to  be  understood 
by  those  to  whom  it  was  first  addressed.  The 
point  of  view  maintained  throughout  the  vol- 
ume has  been  that  of  John  and  his  Chris- 
tian contemporaries  in  the  Roman  province  of 
Asia. 

In  order  to  make  that  ancient  situation 
clear  to  modem  readers,  care  has  been  taken 
first  to  explain  the  specific  circumstances 
which  called  forth  the  writing  of  John's  book. 
And  since  he  chose  to  employ  that  peculiar 
type  of  literary  expression  known  as  apoca- 
lyptic, it  has  been  deemed  advisable  to  give 
a  fairly  full  account  of  other  writings  of  this 
class  current  among  those  ancient  peoples. 
A  knowledge  of  the  various  apocalyptic  books 
then  extant  and  acquaintance  with  the  method 
of  their  composition  are  prerequisite  to  a  cor- 
rect understanding  of  the  Apocalypse  of  John. 

In  the  treatment  of  the  text  itself  a  simple 
method  of  procedure  has  been  adopted.    The 


VI 


Preface 


Preface 


vu 


i 


contents  of  the  book  have  been  analyzed  into 
paragraphs  with  descriptive  captions  inserted 
to  exhibit  the  progression  of  the  author's 
thought.  A  new  EngUsh  rendering  of  the 
text  printed  section  by  section  (in  italics) 
has  been  followed  by  a  running  commentary 
explaining,  where  explanation  seemed  neces- 
sary, the  meaning  of  John's  language.  This  ex- 
planatory material  is  not  in  the  form  of  minute 
and  disconnected  comments  upon  selected 
words  or  phrases,  but  consists  of  interpretative 
paragraphs  elucidating  obscure  matters  in 
the  text.  This  arrangement  has  been  adopted 
in  order  to  encourage  consecutive  reading, 
without  which  a  true  understanding  of  the 
Book  of  Revelation  can  hardly  be  acquired. 
For  those  who  may  wish  also  to  use  this  volume 
as  a  work  of  reference  a  full  list  of  passages 
has  been  included  in  the  Table  of  Contents. 

A  word  of  explanation  regarding  the  English 
rendering  is  needed.  The  translation  is  de- 
signedly interpretative  and  sometimes  para- 
phrastic. The  intention  has  been  to  reproduce 
John's  mind  as  clearly  as  possible  and  not 
simply  to  give  a  slavish  rendering  of  his  lan- 
guage. As  one  of  the  early  Greek  Fathers 
very   pertinently   remarked,    John's    "dialect 


and  language  are  not  accurate  Greek  but  he 
uses  barbarous  idioms  and  in  some  places  he 
even  makes  grammatical  errors. "  It  has  not 
seemed  practicable  to  attempt  to  reproduce  in 
English  the  peculiar  flavor  of  John's  imperfect 
Greek.  Readers  who  desire  an  acquaintance 
with  that  phase  of  the  subject  had  better  resort 
to  the  original.  But  it  has  not  always  been 
easy  to  determine  exactly  what  John  had  in 
mind  when  writing  some  of  his  strange  phrases. 
Undoubtedly  he  was  a  Jew  before  his  con- 
version to  Christianity,  and  therefore  certain  of 
his  difficult  expressions  have  been  rendered  ac- 
cording to  the  Semitic  idiom  in  which  he  seems 
sometimes  to  have  been  thinking.  Moreover, 
he  was  particularly  fond  of  Old  Testament 
phraseology,  which  he  frequently  introduced 
for  rhetorical  effect  and  often  at  the  ex- 
pense of  clearness  in  statement.  Under  these 
circumstances  the  only  procedure  consonant 
with  the  aims  of  the  present  volume  was  a 
freely  interpretative  rendering  of  the  text, 
thus  obviating  unnecessary  comment  upon  lin- 
guistic minutiae. 

The  needs  of  the  general  reader  have  been 
kept  chiefly  in  mind.  The  detailed  discussion 
of   critical   problems   has   been    deliberately 


J 


VUl 


Preface 


avoided,  but  their  importance  has  not  been 
ignored.  The  present  interpretation  has  been 
made  in  strict  accord  with  the  findings  of  mod- 
ern historical  study,  and  the  controlling  pur- 
pose of  the  whole  presentation  has  been  to  give 
in  untechnical  form  an  exposition  of  what 
John's  language  meant  to  himself  and  his  con- 
temporaries. It  is  from  this  standpoint  only 
that  modern  readers  can  arrive  at  a  true  ap- 
preciation of  the  value  of  the  book. 

Shirley  Jackson  Case 

University  of  Chicago 
October  i8, 1919 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER 

I.  The  Demand  for  Revelation    .     . 
I.  Life  in  the  Province  of  Asia  .      . 
II.  The  Contemporary  Religious  Situ 
ation 

III.  The  Religious  Attitude  of  Rome 

IV.  Emperor- Worship  in  Asia      .      . 
V.  The  Situation  of  the  Christians 

VI.  Tune  of  Writing 

VII.  John's  Response  to  the  Situation 


II.  Typical  Revelations  .     .     . 

I.  Apocalyptic      Features 

Prophets 

II.  The  Book  of  Daniel  .  . 
m.  The  Book  of  Enoch  .  . 
IV.  Other  Jewish  Apocalypses 

V.  Gentile  Apocalypses  .  . 
VI.  Christian  Apocalypses     . 


in 


the 


! 


in.  The  Making  of  a  Revelation  .     • 
I.  Fimction  of  Apocalyptic  .     .     . 
II.  Characteristic  Apocalyptic  Ideas 
m.  Equipment  of  the  Seer    .     . 
IV.  Literary  Method  of  Apocalyptic 
V.  The  Composition  of  John's  Apoca- 
lypse  


PAGE 

I 
2 

8 

IS 
23 
32 
42 
54 

57 

58 

65 

75 
86 

99 

112 

"5 
125 

131 

139 
148 

160 


Tabk  of  Contents 


CHAPTER 


PAGE 


IV.  Warnings    to    the    Churches    (Rev., 

CHAPS.  1-3) 186 

I.  Title  of  the  Book  (i :  1-3)     ...  186 

II.  Greetings  to  the  Readers  (1:4-8)  191 

III.  John's  Prophetic  Equipment  (1:9- 

20) 199 

IV.  Message  to  Ephesus  (2:1-7)      •     .210 
V.  Message  to  Smyrna  (2:8-11)     .     .  214 

VI.  Message  to  Pergamum  (2:12-17)   •  218 

VII.  Message  to  Thyatira  (2:18-29)  .     .  225 

Vin.  Message  to  Sardis  (3 : 1-6)    ...  231 

IX.  Message  to  Philadelphia   (3:7-13)  234 

X.  Message  to  Laodicea  (3:14-22) .     .  238 

V.  Beginnings  of  Tribulation  (Rev.  4:1 — 

11:14) 243 

I.  Heavenly  Glory  of  God  (chap.  4)  247 

n.  Power  and  Glory  of  Christ  (chap.  5)  254 

III.  Beginnings  of  Distress  (6:1-8)  .     .  259 

IV.  Promise  of  Judgment  (6:9-17)  .      .  263 
V.  Sealing  of   the   Faithful   Israelites 

(7:1-8) 267 

VI.  Status  of  the  Redeemed  (7:9-17)  270 
VII.  Preparation    for    New    Distresses 

(8:iH3) 273 

VIII.  Convulsions  in  Nature  (8:7-13)     .  275 

IX.  Locusts  from  the  Abyss  (9:1-12)   .  278 

X.  A  Scourge  from  the  East  (9:13-21)  282 

XI.  A  Promise  of  the  End  (10:1-7)   •      •  284 

Xn.  Reinforcement  of  John's  Prophetic 

Powers  (10:8-11) 286 


Table  of  Contents  a 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Xni.  Fate    of    the    Earthly    Jerusalem 

(11:1-14) 288 

VI.  The  Last  Woe  (Rev.  11:15—18:24)     .     297 
1.  Declaration  of  God's  Sovereignty 

(11:15-19) 300 

n.  Satan's  Attack  upon  the  Messiah 

(12:1-6) 302 

III.  Ejection  of  Satan  from  the  Heavens 
(12:7-17) 306 

IV.  The  Imperial  Beast  (12 :  18—13 :  10)    3 10 
V.  The  Priest  of  the  Imperial   Cult 

(13:11-18) 316 

VI.  A    Trivunphant    Group    of    Saints 

(14:1-5) 320 

VII.  Fate    of    the    Beast^s    Worshipers 

(14:6-13) 322 

VIII.  A  Forecast  of  Judgment  (14:14-20)    325 
IX.  Preparations    in    Heaven    (15:1  — 

16:1) 328 

X.  Judgment  upon  the  Emperor's  Sub- 
jects (16:2-9) 331 

XL  Judgment  upon  the  Imperial  Regime 

(16:10-21) 333 

XII.  Further    Identification    of    Rome 

(chap.  17) 337 

XIII.  Pronouncement  of  Doom  upon  Rome 
(18:1-8) 346 

XIV.  Lamentation    over     Rome's     Fall 
(18:9-20) 349 

XV.  Certainty   of   Rome's   Destruction 

(18:21-24) 352 


xii  Table  of  Contents 

CHAPTER  ^^^^ 

VII.  The  Final  Triumph  (Rev.,  chaps.  19-22)  355 

I.  Rejoicing  in  Heaven  (19:1-10)   .      .  356 
n.  The  Triumphant  Messiah  (19:11- 

21) 359 

in.  The  Millennium  (20:1-6)      ...  3^3 
IV.  The  Last  Conflict  and  Final  Judg- 
ment (20:7-15)     367 

V.  The  New  World  (21:1-8)     .     .     .  371 

VI.  The  New  Jerusalem  (21:9—22:5)   .  373 

VII.  Final  Instructions  to  John  (22 : 6-17)  378 
VIII.  Final  Exhortation  to  the  Readers 

(22:18-21) 382 

VIII.  Typical  Interpretations  of  Revelation  384 
I.  Ancient  Interpretation     ....  387 
II.  Traditional  Protestant  Interpreta- 
tion   395 

III.  Modern  Historical  Interpretation  .  400 

Bibliographical  Note 4^^ 

Index 4^3    . 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  DEMAND  FOR  REVELATION 

The  Book  of  Revelation  came  out  of  a  grave 
crisis  in  the  experience  of  Christians  living  in 
western  Asia  Minor  over  eighteen  hundred  years 
ago.    The  dominant  interest  of  the  book  was  to 
encourage  loyalty  to  the  Christian  faith,  then 
under  persecution  by  the  heathen  authorities.  • 
At  Pergamum  opposition  to  the  new  religion 
had  been  so  strenuous  that  a  certain  Antipas 
had  fallen  a  martyr  to  the  cause.    The  loyalty 
of  other  communities  had  also  been  put  to  a 
severe  test,  although  no  specific  instances  of 
martyrdom  are  cited.    But  still  greater  suffer- 
ings were  thought  to  be  imminent.    The  author, 
who  refers  to  himself  as  a  Christian  named  John, 
believed  that  in  the  near  future  the  Christians 
of  Asia  would  be  cast  into  prison,  brought  to 
trial,  and  called  upon  generally  to  abandon 

their  faith. 

Since  Revelation  was  written  to  meet  the 
exigencies  of  this  particular  crisis,  it  reflects  on 
every  page  the  fears  and  the  hopes  of  the  author 
and   his   readers.    In   fact   it   ministered    so 


2  The  Revelation  of  John 

directly  to  contemporary  needs  that  later 
readers,  far  removed  from  that  age  and  un- 
familiar with  the  surroundings  of  those  early 
Christians,  have  often  found  great  difficulty  in 
understanding  this  ancient  document.  The 
message  of  the  book  cannot  be  understood  with- 
out a  knowledge  of  the  immediate  historical 
circumstances  which  called  it  into  existence. 
But  these  circumstances  in  turn  were  a  phase 
of  the  peculiar  social  and  religious  conditions 
then  prevailing  in  the  Roman  province  of  Asia. 

I.      LIFE  IN  THE  PROVINCE  OF  ASIA 

Politically  the  eastern  portion  of  Asia  Minor 
had  been  under  the  control  of  Rome  for  more 
than  a  hundred  years  before  the  beginning  of 
the  Christian  Era.  The  government  of  this 
territory,  known  as  the  province  of  Asia,  was 
administered  by  an  official  called  a  proconsul, 
appointed  from  time  to  time  by  the  Senate  in 
Rome.  Generally  speaking,  the  duties  of  this 
governor  were  threefold.  He  was  responsible 
for  collecting  the  revenues  from  the  province, 
for  the  administration  of  justice,  and  for  the 
maintenance  of  good  order.  But  he  in  turn 
delegated  many  of  these  duties  to  Roman  sub- 
ordinates or  to  native  authorities.    Taxes  were 


% 


I 


The  Demand  for  ReiieUUion  3 

coUected  by  his  appointees,  municipal  courts 
had  wide  powers,  and  local  officials  policed  dif- 
ferent cities  or  districts.  Even  when  appre- 
hended  by  the  authorities,  Christians  did  not 
under  aU  circumstances  necessarily  come  before 
the  proconsul  personally.  Nevertheless  they 
quite  properly  held  Rome  responsible  for  that 
admmistration  of  affairs  which  made  their 
arrest  and  persecution  possible. 

Early  Christians  living  in  this  territory  were 
usually  residents  of  the  cities,  where  they  found 
themselves  part  of  a  very  complex  population. 
Asia  was  one  of  the  most  densely  peopled  prov- 
inces of  the  Empire.    For  centuries  its  principal 
cities  had  been  the  meeting  place  of  travelers 
from  aU  parts  of  the  Mediterranean  world.    In 
such   commercial   and   industrial   centers   as 
Ephesus  and  Smyrna,  people  of  different  nation- 
alities mingled  together  freely,  maMng  their 
respective  contributions  toward  the  exceedingly 
syncretistic  life  of  that  day.    Many  of  these  for- 
eigners were  Jews.    John  hunself  is  evidently 
a  Christian  convert  from  Judaism,  as  were 
doubtless  many  of  his  feUow-believers  in  each 
of  the  churches  addressed.    But  as  a  whole 
these  early  Christian  communities  were  com- 
posed very  largely  of  Gentiles  who  might  be 


4  The  Revelation  of  John 

either  natives  of  Asia  or  immigrants  from 
Greece,  Syria,  Babylonia,  Egypt,  or  Italy. 

This  fusion  of  nationalities  involved  the 
persistence  of  a  variety  of  interests  and  tastes, 
even  within  a  relatively  small  Christian  group. 
It  is  not  surprising  to  find  John  appealing  to 
his  readers  with  a  profusion  of  images,  some 
inspired  by  the  Old  Testament,  others  derived 
from  the  writings  of  later  Judaism,  and  still 
others  suggested  by  popular  gentile  beliefs 
current  in  the  Graeco-Roman  world.  The 
varied  and  adventurous  character  of  John's 
imagery  corresponds  admirably  with  the  com- 
plex social  order  by  which  he  was  surrounded. 

On  the  economic  side  of  their  life  early 
Christians  have  become  almost  proverbial  for 
their  poverty.  But  the  province  of  Asia  was 
one  of  the  most  prosperous  districts  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  and  at  an  early  date  offered 
Christians  an  opportunity  for  improving  their 
financial  condition.  Apparently  some  progress 
had  been  made  in  this  direction  before  the  Book 
of  Revelation  was  written.  John  vehemently 
upbraids  the  Laodiceans  for  self-satisfaction 
with  their  worldly  possessions,  which  he  thinks 
will  stand  them  in  poor  stead  when  the  im- 
pending day  of  divine  wrath  presently  breaks 


The  Demand  for  Revelation  $ 

upon  mortals.  Then  they  will  find  that  they 
have  not  been  enriched,  but  that  they  have 
been  impoverished  by  their  gold,  fine  raiment, 
and  unguents.  John  would  have  them  exchange 
their  enjo3anent  of  these  earthly  treasures  for 
the  more  usual  Christian  experience  of  self- 
sacrificing  poverty. 

Revelation  also  offers  a  tacit  protest  against 
the  growing  tendency  on  the  part  of  Christians 
to  engage  in  trade  and  commerce.  John  reminds 
his  readers  that  the  heavenly  book  of  life  does 
not  contain  the  name  of  any  person  who  has 
performed  the  rites  of  emperor-worship  neces- 
sary to  procure  an  imperial  permit  to  buy  and 
sell.^  Moreover  he  takes  particular  delight  in 
describing  the  disappointment  awaiting  those 
merchants  who  have  grown  rich  catering  to  the 
luxurious  demands  of  the  age.  When  Rome 
falls  by  the  sudden  stroke  of  God  they  will 
lament  because  there  is  no  longer  a  market  for 
their  merchandise.* 

Early  Christians  had  been  encouraged  by 
their  leaders  to  be  very  exclusive  in  their  social 
relationships.  Prior  to  their  acceptance  of 
Christianity,  gentile  converts  had  participated 
in  a  variety  of  social  enjoyments.    They  joined 

'  Rev.  13 : 8, 1 7.  *  Rev.  18 : 1 2-19. 


^ 


\A 


5  The  Revelation  of  John 

in  the  celebration  of  pubUc  festivals,  they  ate 
with  their  neighbors  at  the  ba'iquets  m  the 
temples,  they  attended  the  gladiatonal  show 
nX  ainphitheater,  they  witnessed  the  chariot 
races  m  L  circus,  they  watched  the  contest^ 
of  the  athletes  in  the  stadium,  or  they  went 
with  their  friends  to  the  theater.     But  on 
accepting  Christianity  they  were  advised  to 
forego  all  these  social  pleasures,  and  as  a  rule 
they  seem  to  have  heeded  this  advice. 

While  Christians  remained  relatively  few  in 
number  and  were  daUy  expecting  a  return  of 
their  Lord  to  destroy  the  present  evil  wor  d, 
they  were  content  to  renounce  pagan  society. 
But  as  the  membership  of  the  churches  in- 
creased, and  the  passing  of  the  years  dulled  the 
hope  of  an  early  catastrophic  end  of  the  world. 
Christians  graduaUy  began  to  recognize  the 
necessity  of  more  intunate  participation  m  the 
affairs  of  the  present  world.    They  discovered 
that    their    earlier    exclusiveness    not    only 
restricted  their  own  legitimate  secular  activ- 
ities, but  caused  them  to  be  misunderstood  by 
their  neighbors,  and  so  constituted  an  artificial 
barrier  to  the  success  of  the  new  rehgion    Yet 
this  new  way  of  thinking  inevitably  caUed  forth 
opposition.    John  is  most  vigorous  m  his  hos- 


The  Demand  for  Revelation  7 

tUity  toward  this  new  liberalism.  When  he 
reprimands  the  churches  for  the  loss  of  their 
first  love  and  for  the  spirit  of  lukewarmness 
which  they  manifest,  he  doubtless  has  in  mind 
that  lack  of  community  spirit  which  resulted 
from  their  friendly  attitude  toward  contem- 
porary society.  The  advocates  of  this  genial 
attitude  are  denounced  as  false  and  sinful 
teachers  whom  God  will  punish  in  the  day  of 

judgment. 

The  very  severity  of  John's  denunciation  is 
in  itself  an  indication  of  the  presence  of  a  grow- 
ing disposition  among  the  Christians  of  Asia  to 
come  into  closer  contact  with  the  existing  social 
order,  making  such  concessions  thereto  as 
would  enable  them  to  live  more  amicably  with 
then:  gentile  neighbors.  The  emergence  of  this 
problem  of  social  adjustment  is  very  significant. 
Although  John  stoutly  maintained  the  older 
view,  that  Roman  society  was  not  to  be  toler- 
ated but  to  be  suddenly  destroyed,  history 
proved  itself  on  the  side  of  John's  opponents, 
who  possibly  were  already  beginning  to  suspect 
that  not  catastrophic  destruction  of  paganism 
but  a  gradual  process  of  Christianization  to  be 
effected  through  more  intimate  contact  with 
society  was  the  means  by  which  the  new  religion 


8 


The  Revelation  of  John 


would  ultimately  establish  its  sway  in  Mediter- 
ranean lands. 

n.      THE  CONTEMPORARY  RELIGIOUS   SITUATION 

Religious  interests  occupied  a  large  place  in 
the  life  of  Gentiles  living  in  the  province  of 
Asia.     Temples  dedicated  to  the  worship  of 
various  deities  were  as  common  then  as  churches 
are  today  in  Christian  countries.    The  populace 
participated  freely  in  religious  ceremonies,  espe- 
cially in  festivities  celebrated  on  numerous 
holidays  set  apart  for  that  purpose.    When,  as 
often  happened,  a  particular  religion  was  the 
property  of  a  municipaUty,  the  rites  were  kept 
up  at  pubUc  expense.     All  the  citizens  were 
taxed  to  pay  for  constructing  the  temple,  to 
secure  splendid  images,  to  maintain  the  priests, 
to  provide  animals  for  the  sacrifice,  and  to 
defray  the  expenses  of  feasts  and  festivals. 
Cults  thus  supported  were  literally  the  property 
of  the  people,  who  by  participating  in  the  cere- 
monies freely  availed  themselves  of  the  privileges 
to  which  they  were  entitled.    These  pubUc  re- 
ligious ceremonies  formed  a  very  conspicuous 
feature  in  the  life  of  the  ancient  world,  and  when 
John  wrote  they  were  nowhere  more  in  evidence 
than  in  the  cities  of  the  province  of  Asia. 


The  Demand  for  Revelation  9 

The  more  ordinary  activities  of  daily  life 
were  also  bound  up  with  a  wealth  of  religious 
associations.  Then  as  now  civic  officials  took 
the  oath  of  office  in  the  name  of  a  deity.  In 
private  life  religion  surrounded  the  individual 
with  its  help  and  protection.  Many  persons 
went  quietly  to  the  temples  with  votive  offerings 
in  gratitude  or  supplication  for  special  favors 
from  the  gods.  Not  infrequently  worship  was 
conducted  in  the  home,  where  images  of  the 
gods  were  always  to  be  found,  and  where  the 
father  of  the  family  might  officiate  as  priest  for 
the  members  of  the  household.  The  tradesman 
or  the  mariner  often  performed  his  own  private 
religious  ceremonies  to  insure  the  prosperity  of 
his  undertakings.  Numerous  clubs,  mutual 
benefit  associations,  and  trade  guilds,  common 
in  those  days,  usually  adopted  a  certain  divinity 
as  protector  of  their  corporate  life.  In  fact 
among  all  classes  of  society  and  under  widely 
varying  circumstances  religious  interests  dom- 
inated the  life  of  that  day. 

Many  different  deities  were  worshiped  in 
the  province  of  Asia.  At  an  early  date  the  gods 
of  Greece  had  traveled  across  the  Aegean,  find- 
ing a  second  home  among  the  residents  of  Asia 
Minor,  who  henceforth  worshiped  not  only  the 


lO 


The  Revelation  of  John 


local  deities  long  established  in  this  territory, 
but  also  their  more  illustrious  competitors  from 
Greece.  Paul  learned  to  his  sorrow  that  the 
people  of  Ephesus  were  fanatically  devoted  to 
Artemis/  She  was  the  patron  deity  of  the  city, 
one  of  its  chief  claims  to  glory  being  the  mag- 
nificence of  her  sanctuary  and  the  pomp  dis- 
played in  her  worship.  In  attendance  at  her 
shrine  was  a  host  of  officials,  including  guards, 
caretakers,  singers,  instructors,  priests,  and 
priestesses.  Both  public  funds  and  private 
bequests  furnished  her  temple-treasury  ample 
means  for  the  maintenance  of  one  of  the  most 
magnificent  cults  of  antiquity. 

In  the  prominence  given  to  Greek  deities 
among  the  Asian  cities  Ephesus  was  no  excep- 
tion, nor  was  reverence  restricted  to  a  single 
deity.  Practically  every  one  of  the  great 
Olympians  was  worshiped  throughout  the  prov- 
ince of  Asia,  and  not  infrequently  the  lesser  gods 
of  Greece  also  received  fitting  honors.  In 
Smyrna  there  were  numerous  temples  erected 
in  honor  of  various  deities,  including  Zeus  and 
Cybele.  The  altar  of  Zeus  at  Pergamum  was 
the  city's  chief  glory,  though  Athena,  Dionysos, 
and  Asklepios  were  associated  with  Zeus  as 

'Acts  i9:23ff. 


The  Demand  for  Revelation 


II 


patron  deities  of  the  city.  Invalids  came  from 
far  and  near  to  visit  the  sanctuary  of  the  Per- 
gameme  Asklepios,  whose  fame  as  a  healer  was 
heralded  broadcast  by  successive  generations  of 
convalescents.  Everywhere,  throughout  the 
province  of  Asia,  Christians  were  surrounded  by 
the  cults  of  both  native  Asiatic  and  imported 
Greek  deities,  and  all  gentile  converts  to  the 
new  religion  had  formerly  been  worshipers  of 
these  heathen  gods. 

Other  foreign  deities  came  into  Asia  from 
the  west  and  south,  brought  thither  by  slaves, 
artisans,  traders,  and  travelers  from  different 
parts  of  the  world.  When  strangers  from  Phry- 
gia,  Syria,  Persia,  Babylonia,  or  Egypt  pressed 
their  way  into  western  Asia  Minor  in  sufficient 
numbers  to  constitute  distinct  groups,  they 
assembled  in  communities  of  their  own  to  estab- 
lish the  worship  of  their  ancestral  gods.  Long 
before  the  end  of  the  first  century  of  the  Chris- 
tian Era  these  foreigners  had  often  become  so 
numerous  and  so  prosperous  in  the  larger 
cities  about  the  Mediterranean  that  they  not 
only  constituted  independent  worshiping  groups 
but  could  boast  of  temples  reared  in  honor  of 
their  own  gods,  whose  priests  sometimes  con- 
ducted a  vigorous  missionary  propaganda  on 


\ 


12 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Demand  J  or  Revelation 


13 


lii 


behalf  of  their  religion.  By  these  means  the 
inhabitants  of  the  province  of  Asia  had  become 
familiar  with,  and  in  some  cases  worshipers  of, 
such  popular  oriental  and  Egyptian  deities  as 
the  great  Phrygian  Mother  of  the  Gods  and  her 
consort  Attis,  the  Ashtart  and  Eshmun  of  the 
Phoenicians,  more  familiarly  known  in  the 
Graeco-Roman  world  as  Aphrodite  and  Adonis, 
the  Isis  and  Osiris  of  the  Egyptians,  and  per- 
haps to  some  extent  the  Ishtar  and  Tammuz  of 
the  Babylonians,  as  well  as  the  Mithra  of  the 

Persians. 

Jews  were  numerous  in  the  province  of  Asia. 
Long  before  the  time  of  John  they  had  been 
residing  in  considerable  numbers  in  Ephesus, 
Pergamum,  Sardis,  and  neighboring  cities.  Not 
only  did  they  maintain  their  distinct  national- 
ity, but  special  concessions  were  frequently 
granted  them  in  deference  to  their  religious 
scruples.    In  addition  to  the  privilege  of  perpet- 
uating their  ancestral  faith  without  hindrance, 
they  were   exempted    from    military    service 
and  were  permitted  to  send  contributions  of 
money  to  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem.    They 
differed  from  other  foreigners  in  absolutely 
refusing  to  observe  any  religious  rites  except 
those  of  their  own  sect,  but  in  spite  of  their 


unwillingness  to  indulge  in  any  form  of  pagan 
worship  their  own  places  of  worship  were 
thrown  open  to  the  public.  Every  Sabbath  the 
sacred  Scriptures  were  read  and  expounded  to 
members  of  the  congregation,  including  any 
Gentiles  who  might  care  to  listen.  Not  a  few 
Gentiles  availed  themselves  of  this  opportunity, 
admiring  the  Jewish  faith  for  its  antiquity,  its 
rigid  monotheism,  and  its  high  moral  demands. 
Judaism  was  thus  a  missionary  religion  which 
had  already  attracted  attention  among  the 
Gentiles  of  Asia  before  the  earliest  Christian 
preachers  appeared  upon  the  scene. 

As  a  whole  the  religious  situation  in  Asia 
must  have  been  a  very  impressive  fact  in  the 
life  of  the  early  Christians.  While  they  adopted 
a  policy  of  aloofness,  at  the  same  time  making 
it  perfectly  evident  that  they  were  positively 
unsympathetic  toward  the  various  religions  of 
their  neighbors,  they  could  not  separate  them- 
selves completely  from  the  wealth  of  pagan 
associations  permeating  that  ancient  society. 
Although  they  might  refrain  from  participating 
in  the  religious  festivities  which  they  were 
taxed  to  support,  as  members  of  the  munici- 
pality they  were  compelled  to  bear  their  share 
of  its  financial  burdens.    They  could  refuse  to 


14 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Demand  for  Revelation 


IS 


patronize  the  image-maker,  and  could  purge  all 
idolatrous  practices  from  their  own  private  life, 
but  when  they  emerged  from  the  privacy  of 
their  own  homes  they  at  once  found  them- 
selves surrounded  by  the  glories  of  pagan  art 
with  its  magnificent  temples  and  innumerable 
images  on  every  hand.  In  fact  the  mere  per- 
petuation of  physical  existence  within  society 
as  then  constituted  compelled  Christians  to 
breathe  the  stifling  atmosphere  of  a  long- 
established  paganism. 

Judaism  was  a  less  overpowering  factor  in 
the  Christians'  environment.  Yet  they  had  no 
fellowship  with  the  adherents  of  this  faith,  not- 
withstanding its  numerous  similarities  to  their 
own.  Indeed  the  larger  common  heritage 
seemed  only  to  furnish  greater  controversial 
stimuli  to  widen  the  breach  between  the  two 
groups.  The  Jewish  synagogue  and  the  pagan 
temple  were  alike  inaccessible  to  the  devout 
Christian.  ^ 

Thus  unhappily  situated  with  respect  to 
their  religious  surroundings,  and  finding  them- 
selves hopelessly  in  the  minority,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  Christians  regarded  the  existing 
order  of  things  as  a  state  of  irredeemable 
wretchedness  from  which  ultimate  deliverance 


could  be  secured  only  through  some  desperate 
act  of  divine  intervention.  Their  situation 
made  possible  a  ready  acceptance  of  belief  in 
the  early  end  of  the  world  and  in  a  speedy 
return  of  Christ  to  establish  a  new  regime  of 
perfection  upon  the  earth. 

m.      THE  RELIGIOUS  ATTITUDE   OF  ROME 

Another  significant  factor  in  the  experience 
of  the  Christians  in  Asia  was  the  religious  atti- 
tude of  the  Roman  authorities.  The  Romans 
were  keenly  interested  in  religion.  It  was 
commonly  believed  that  from  the  very  outset 
the  destinies  of  the  nation  had  been  controlled 
by  the  gods,  who  had  so  ordered  history  as  to 
make  Rome  the  dominant  political  power  in 
the  ancient  world.  From  time  immemorial 
formal  religious  ceremonies  had  been  carefully 
observed  by  the  state,  and,  on  different  occa- 
sions under  circumstances  of  peculiar  distress, 
new  rites  had  been  deliberately  introduced  as 
a  means  of  securing  a  firmer  grip  upon  divine 
protection.  With  the  inauguration  of  the 
imperial  system,  Augustus  gave  especial  atten- 
tion to  religious  matters,  recognizing  that  the 
religious  appeal  furnished  one  of  the  best  means 
of  fostering  patriotism.    People  who  believed 


i6 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Demand  for  Revelation 


17 


that  the  mighty  Roman  Empire  was  a  creation 
of  the  gods  were  almost  as  ready  to  revere  the 
government  as  to  worship  the  gods  themselves. 
This  popular  attitude,  widely  prevalent  through- 
out the  first  century  a.d.,  particularly  in  the 
eastern  Mediterranean  lands,  boded  ill  for 
Christians  who  denied  the  power  of  the  pagan 
deities  and  predicted  the  early  downfall  of  the 

Roman  state. 

Roman  tradition  reported  that  in  earlier  days 
the  government  had  rigorously  supervised  reli- 
gious activities.  In  Rome  itself  an  imaginary 
circular  line  called  the  pomerium  marked  off 
the  sacred  precincts  within  which  the  national 
deities  alone  were  admitted.  Every  citizen 
was  expected  to  observe  scrupulously  the  rites 
prescribed  by  law  and  to  refrain  from  partici- 
pating in  the  ceremonies  of  strange  worships. 
But  this  original  exclusiveness  was  soon  out- 
grown. As  Rome  arose  to  the  dignity  of  a  world- 
power,  contact  with  foreign  nations  resulted  in 
the  introduction  of  new  deities  inside  the 
pomerium,  the  rites  of  other  strange  gods  were 
permitted  by  state  authority  outside  the  pome- 
rium, and  many  foreign  cults  flourished  within 
the  city,  though  never  given  recognition  by 
the  state. 


As  a  matter  of  fact  the  later  history  of 
Roman  religion  is  largely  the  story  of  the  adop- 
tion of  new  deities  sanctioned  by  senatorial 
decree  and  thereby  officially  incorporated  in 
the  national  worship.  In  this  way  practically 
all  the  gods  of  Greece  had  emigrated  to  Rome 
before  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  Era. 
Other  deities  from  Asia  and  Egypt  had  fol- 
lowed in  their  train.  Though  not  generally 
admitted  within  the  pomerium,  they  were  per- 
mitted a  place  in  the  outlying  sections  of  the 
city  and  received  worship  not  only  from  foreign 
residents  but  occasionally  also  from  native 
Romans.  New  private  cults  of  which  the 
government  ordinarily  took  no  notice  were  also 
numerous.  During  early  imperial  times  for- 
eigners flocked  into  Rome  in  constantly  greater 
numbers,  bringing  with  them  from  the  densely 
populated  provinces  of  Egypt,  Syria,  or  Asia 
their  native  gods,  whom  they  continued  to  wor- 
ship with  impunity  almost  within  the  very 
shadow  of  the  Capitol. 

Thus  the  Romans  were  compelled  by  force 
of  circumstances  to  be  tolerant  toward  foreign 
religions.  Though  the  authorities  retained  the 
right  to  suppress  any  cult  that  operated  with- 
out permission  from  the  state,  as  a  matter  of 


:'1 .(: 


i8 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Demand  for  Revelation 


19 


fact  even  within  the  city  of  Rome  itself  they 
rarely  intervened  except  when  the  political  or 
moral  welfare  of  the  public  seemed  in  danger. 
Normally  the  adherents  of  every  cult,  both  in 
Rome  and  in  the  provmces,  observed  their  own 
rites  unmolested  by  the  authorities. 

The  personal  attitude  of  the  early  emperors 
was  simUarly  lenient.  Their  general  policy  was 
not  one  of  hostility  toward  the  religions  of  their 
foreign  subjects,  but  one  of  open  toleration 
tempered  by  a  benevolent  supervision  looking 
toward  the  preservation  of  the  national  welfare. 
To  be  sure  there  were  exceptions  to  this  rule, 
but  they  only  served  to  emphasize  the  general 
principle  of  toleration.  This  general  attitude 
of  indifference  or  toleration  on  the  part  of  the 
early  emperors  is  a  fact  that  has  been  over- 
looked by  certain  ancient  Christian  writers  in 
their  zeal  to  lay  the  blame  for  all  the  persecu- 
tions of  Christians  dkectly  at  the  door  of  the 
imperial  palace. 

A  conspicuous  example  of  Roman  toleration 
is  seen  in  the  treatment  accorded  Judaism.  It 
is  true  that  on  certain  occasions  the  Jews  of 
Rome  and  of  Italy  incurred  the  displeasure  of 
the  authorities  and  were  temporarily  ordered 
out  of  the  country.     But  these  outbursts  of 


i 


hostility  were  due  to  special  causes  and  not  to 
the  mere  fact  that  Judaism  was  a  foreign  reli- 
gion.   As  early  as  139  b.o.  Jews  in  Rome  were 
looked  upon  with  suspicion,  but  they  continued 
to  increase  in  numbers,  many  of  them  being 
Roman  citizens,  though  still  adhering  to  the 
faith  of  their  fathers.     In  the  year  19  a.d. 
Tiberius  ordered   them  expelled  from  Rome 
because  four  Jewish  adventurers  had  appro- 
priated for  their  own  uses  a  large  contribution 
to  the  Temple  made  by  a  wealthy  Roman  lady 
who  had  embraced  the  Jewish  faith.     A  few 
years  later  Claudius  issued  a  similar  order  on 
the  ground  that  Jews  were  disturbing  the  peace. 
Notwithstanding  these  temporary  restrictions 
large  numbers  of  Jews  continued  to  reside  in 
Rome,  where  they  perpetuated  their  own  religion 
without  serious  interference  from  the  authorities. 
In  the  provinces  Judaism  was  not  only  tol- 
erated but  positively  protected  by  Rome.    As 
early  as  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar,  Jews  had 
won  Roman  favor  and  a  number  of  decrees  had 
been  issued  to  insure  them  special  privileges 
and  protections.     One  of  these  decrees  is  of 
sufficient  interest  to  be  quoted  in  part: 

To  the  magistrates,  council,  and  people  of  the 
Parians,  greeting.    The  Jews  of  Delos,  and  certain 


20 


The  Revelation  oJJohn 


Jews  temporarily  residing  there,  have  met  me  in  the 
presence  of  your  ambassadors  and  signified  that  you 
by  a  decree  prevent  them  from  practicing  their  ances- 
tral customs  and  sacred  rites.  Now  it  is  not  pleasing 
to  me  that  such  decrees  be  enacted  against  our  friends 
and  aUies,  preventing  them  from  living  according  to 
their  own  customs  and  from  making  contributions  for 
their  common  suppers  and  sacred  rites,  a  thing  which 
they  are  not  prevented  from  doing  even  in  Rome.' 

Augustus'  attitude  toward  the  Jews  was 
most  tolerant.  Even  in  Rome  he  allowed  them 
to  retain  the  rights  of  Roman  citizenship  which 
they  had  acquired,  and  he  did  not  compel  them 
to  alter  any  of  their  traditional  religious  cus- 
toms. They  were  permitted  to  have  numerous 
synagogues  where  they  freely  assembled  for 
worship  on  the  Sabbath.  No  objections  were 
raised  to  the  contributions  of  money  sent  by 
them  from  Rome  to  support  the  religious  serv- 
ices of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem.  Jews  shared 
equally  with  other  subjects  of  the  emperor  in 
the  public  distributions  of  money  or  of  grain, 
and  when  the  date  for  the  distribution  chanced 
to  fall  on  the  Sabbath  their  portion  was 
reserved  for  assignment  on  the  following  day. 

The  example  of  Augustus  was  followed  by 
subsequent  emperors.     With  few  exceptions 

*  Josephus  Antiquities  XIV.  x.  8. 


The  Demand  for  Revelation 


21 


even  in  Rome,  but  particularly  in  the  provinces, 
the  Jews  enjoyed  perfect  religious  freedom  so 
far  as  the  imperial  policy  was  concerned,  save 
for  the  momentary  folly  of  Caligula  in  ordering 
his  image  to  be  placed  in  the  Temple  at  Jeru- 
salem. The  imperial  attitude  of  toleration  was 
not  materially  affected  even  by  the  revolu- 
tionary activities  of  the  Jews  during  the  first 
and  second  centuries  a.d.  The  revolt  resulting 
in  the  destruction  of  the  Temple  in  70  a.d.,  and 
the  uprising  of  Barcochba,  ending  in  the  com- 
plete downfall  of  the  Jewish  state  in  135  a.d., 
greatly  increased  popular  prejudice  against 
them  as  a  people,  but  did  not  result  in  any 
formd  suppression  of  their  religion.  Acknowl- 
edgment of  Caesar's  lordship  was  demanded  in 
the  case  of  the  Sicarii,  who  fled  to  Alexandria 
after  Jerusalem  fell  in  70  a.d.,  but  no  such 
demand  was  made  of  the  Jews  of  good  repute 
who  had  handed  these  disturbers  over  to  the 
Romans.' 

In  view  of  the  general  attitude  of  religious 
toleration  practiced  by  the  emperors,  Christians 
had  no  occasion  to  anticipate  any  opposition 
from  the  state.  The  old  laws  designed  to  safe- 
guard  ancient   Roman   rites   had   not   been 

'Josephus  War  VII.  x.  i. 


*^ 


22 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Demand  for  Revelation 


23 


formally  abolished,  but  for  centuries  the  author- 
ities had  ignored  the  letter  of  the  law  and  had 
tolerated  many  an  unlicensed  cult,  even  per- 
mitting Roman  citizens  to  participate  in  the 
rites  of  foreign  religions.  When  a  cult  was 
regarded  as  politically  safe  and  as  offering  no 
menace  to  public  morals,  its  adherents  were  in 
no  imminent  danger  of  hostile  action  by  the 
state.  But  if  for  any  reason  they  were  sus- 
pected of  disloyalty,  or  if  their  practices  were 
thought  detrimental  to  public  welfare,  an 
attempt  at  suppression  might  be  momentarily 

expected. 

When  the  Book  of  Revelation  was  written. 
Christians  of  Asia  had  fallen  into  disfavor  with 
the  authorities.  Repressive  measures  had  been 
enacted  against  the  new  religion,  and  its  fol- 
lowers were  living  in  lively  expectation  of  still 
more  drastic  treatment  in  the  near  future.  The 
situation  is  vividly  depicted  by  John,  who 
regards  the  imperial  power  as  the  special  imple- 
ment employed  by  Satan  in  his  evil  designs 
against  the  followers  of  Christ.  What  had 
brought  about  this  hot  outburst  of  fury  against 
the  Roman  government,  which  was  so  generally 
tolerant  of  all  the  various  religions  of  its  sub- 
jects, not  even  excluding  Judaism,  to  which 


KlJ 


Christianity  in  its  origin  was  closely  akin? 
The  answer  to  this  question  is  furnished  by  that 
new  religious  phenomenon  of  imperial  times 
known  as  emperor- worship. 

rV.      EMPEROR-WORSHIP   IN  ASIA 

Long  before  the  rise  of  the  Roman  Empire 
worship  of  rulers  was  a  well-established  custom 
in  the  eastern  Mediterranean  World.  The 
picturesque  figure  of  Alexander  the  Great 
readily  invited  divine  honors  similar  to  those 
which  had  been  freely  rendered  to  oriental 
monarchs  for  centuries  before  Alexander  made 
himself  master  of  Western  Asia  and  Egypt.  His 
phenomenal  success  easily  led  to  the  belief  that 
he  had  been  divinely  chosen  to  establish  Greek 
rule  throughout  the  world,  and  as  the  vicegerent 
of  heaven  he  might  fittingly  receive  the  wor- 
shipful adoration  of  his  subjects.  The  tendency 
to  deify  him,  already  in  evidence  during  his 
lifetime,  came  to  fuller  expression  after  his 
death.  Not  only  was  Alexander  worshiped  as 
a  god,  but  his  successors  ruling  in  Egypt,  Syria, 
and  Macedonia  were  accorded  similar  honors. 

Rome  entered  the  political  arena  of  the 
East  in  the  role  of  liberator  of  the  Greeks.  At 
first  victorious  Roman  generals  and  later  even 


24 


The  Revelation  of  John 


proconsuls  were  hailed  as  savior  deities  by  the 
grateful  provincials.  It  soon  became  an  estab- 
lished custom,  especially  in  the  province  of 
Asia,  to  worship  the  representatives  of  the 
Roman  government  by  erecting  temples  and 
instituting  sacrifices  in  their  honor.  The  faith 
of  the  provincials  also  created  a  new  goddess 
called  Roma,  who  personified  for  them  the  new 
political  powers  of  their  conquerors  and  oc- 
cupied a  position  in  their  faith  similar  to  that 
of  a  divine  queen  in  the  worship  of  oriental 
monarchs.  A  temple  dedicated  to  Roma  was 
erected  at  Smyrna  in  195  B.C.,  and  during  sub- 
sequent years  she  became  a  popular  goddess  in 
various  Eastern  cities. 

With  the  establishment  of  the  imperial 
regime  under  Augustus,  worship  of  the  Roman 
power  received  fresh  stimulus.  In  the  year 
29  B.C.  he  granted  the  provinces  of  Asia  and  Bi- 
thynia  permission  to  dedicate  at  their  two  chief 
cities,  Ephesus  and  Nicea,  temples  for  the  joint 
worship  of  the  goddess  Roma  and  the  deceased 
Julius  Caesar.  Roman  citizens  residing  in  these 
regions  were  instructed  to  render  due  worship 
at  these  new  shrines.  To  the  residents  of  the 
provinces  who  had  not  acquired  the  rank  of 
Roman  citizenship  Augustus  granted  the  priv- 


The  Demand  for  Revelation 


25 


ilege  of  erecting  temples  for  the  joint  worship 
of  the  goddess  Roma  and  himseK  at  Pergamum 
in  Asia  and  at  Nicomedia  in  Bithynia.  Sub- 
sequently similar  shrines  were  established  at 
many  places,  but  the  goddess  Roma  gradually 
disappeared,  while  the  worship  of  both  dead  and 
living  emperors  became  increasingly  popular 
with  the  provincials. 

The  Senate  and  people  of  Rome  were  more 
reserved  in  their  adoption  of  emperor-worship. 
While  the  Senate  freely  authorized  imperial 
cults  for  the  provinces,  in  Rome  itself  official 
deification  was  reserved  for  deceased  emperors. 
Yet  even  in  Rome  popular  fancy  far  outran 
official  action  in  respect  to  the  worship  of  both 
living  and  deceased  rulers.  Even  before  Julius 
Caesar  was  assassinated  he  had  been  regarded 
as  a  divinity  by  the  admiring  populace,  and  his 
formal  apotheosis  by  the  Senate  a  few  months 
after  his  death  was  but  a  tardy  confirmation 
of  popular  belief.  But,  remembering  the  price 
Caesar  had  paid  for  his  too  great  popularity, 
Augustus  and  his  successors  usually  discouraged 
the  people  of  Rome  from  rendering  divine 
honors  to  living  emperors.  Zealous  support, 
however,  was  given  to  the  worship  of  those 
deceased   rulers   whose   apotheosis   had   been 


26 


TJie  Revelation  of  John 


The  Demand  for  Revelation 


27 


officially  decreed  by  the  Senate,  and  the  cult 
of  the  reigning  emperor  was  heartily  approved 
as  a  legitimate  and  desirable  form  of  worship 
for  provincials. 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  first  cen- 
tury A.D.,  when  Christianity  was  gaining  a  foot- 
hold in  Asia,  emperor-worship  must  have  been 
a  familiar  fact  in  all  the  more  important  cities 
and  in  many  of  the  smaller  towns  of  the  prov- 
ince. At  various  places  temples  had  been 
erected  in  honor  of  successive  generations  of 
ruUng  emperors,  whose  cults  still  survived  even 
after  the  individual  ruler's  death.  These  tem- 
ples, constantly  increasing  in  number,  were  sup- 
ported at  the  public  expense,  and  associated  with 
them  were  priests,  keepers,  guards,  singers,  or 
other  attendants,  who  administered  the  rites  of 
the  cult  with  fitting  ceremonies  well  calculated 
to  impress  the  public. 

In  the  provinces  there  were  two  main  types 
of  emperor- worship,  one  known  as  the  municipal 
cult  and  the  other  as  the  provincial.  It  was  a 
common  practice  for  different  municipalities  to 
estabhsh  on  their  own  initiative  and  to  maintain 
at  their  own  expense  religious  rites  in  honor 
of  the  various  emperors,  both  during  their  Ufe- 
time  and  after  their  death.   Frequently  the  wor- 


ship of  the  ruler  would  be  associated  with  that 
of  some  local  god,  the  emperor  supplementing 
or  supplanting  the  deity  as  the  city's  benefactor 
or  savior.  Apparently  the  municipal  cult  of  the 
emperor  received  no  official  approval  or  author- 
ization either  from  the  emperor,  the  Senate,  or 
the  governor.  It  seems  to  have  been  entirely 
under  the  control  of  local  authorities,  who  built 
the  temple,  appointed  the  festivals,  supported 
the  priests,  and  attended  to  all  other  matters 
pertaining  to  the  conduct  of  the  worship.  It  is 
not  improbable,  however,  that  the  governor  of  a 
province,  or  his  agents,  would  exercise  a  certain 
degree  of  unofficial  supervision  with  a  view  to 
insuring  a  proper  respect  and  fitting  pomp  in  the 
observance  of  the  rites. 

On  the  other  hand  a  provincial  cult  of  the 
emperor  could  not  be  established  without  the 
official  consent  of  Rome.  The  initiative  was 
taken  by  the  province,  but  an  imperial  authori- 
zation had  to  be  obtained  before  the  provincials 
could  build  a  temple  or  institute  a  cult  in  honor 
of  any  particular  emperor.  A  provincial 
assembly  composed  of  delegates  from  the 
various  cities  and  convening  at  stated  periods 
had  as  one  of  its  duties  the  care  of  the  imperial 
cult  of  the  province.     To  this   council   the 


28 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Demand  for  Revelation 


29 


■i£» 


emperors  gave  permission  from  time  to  time  for 
the  establishment  of  their  worship  at  various 
places  in  Asia.  The  first  city  to  be  honored 
with  a  provincial  cult  of  a  hving  emperor  was 
Pergamum,  where  worship  of  Augustus  was 
officially  instituted  in  the  year  29  B.C.  This 
fact  gave  the  city  a  certain  prestige,  in  which 
it  took  no  Httle  pride,  but  for  the  same  reason 
to  the  author  of  Revelation  Pergamum  was 
notorious  as  the  abode  of  Satan's  seat. 

Before  the  close  of  the  first  century  a.d. 
many  cities  of  Asia  had  been  given  permission 
to  establish  provincial  cults  of  the  emperors, 
and  could  boast  the  possession  of  magnificent 
temples  in  their  honor.  At  times  it  appears  to 
have  been  customary  to  designate  a  certain  city 
as  official  temple-keeper,  making  it  temporarily 
the  religious  capital  of  the  province.  At  least 
once  during  the  first  century  a.d.  this  honor 
had  been  bestowed  variously  upon  Pergamum, 
Ephesus,  and  Smyrna — a  significant  testimony 
to  their  zeal  for  worshiping  the  ruler.  Each 
sanctuary  was  presided  over  by  a  chief  priest 
elected  by  the  provincial  assembly,  while  the 
president  of  the  assembly  bore  the  dignified 
title  of  ''high  priest  of  Asia.''  Neither  these 
officials  nor  the  provincial  council  itself  pos- 


sessed any  judicial  powers,  yet  their  prestige  in 
the  community  was  very  great.  Even  a  Roman 
governor  avoided  offending  these  provincial 
dignitaries,  and  it  must  have  been  a  very  simple 
matter  for  officials  of  the  imperial  cult  to  pro- 
cure effective  judicial  action  against  any  mem- 
bers of  the  community  who,  like  the  Christians, 
failed  to  show  proper  respect  for  the  popular 
imperial  cult. 

It  is  perfectly  apparent,  however,  that  the 
imperial  cult  did  not  generally  assume  a  hostile 
attitude  toward  its  predecessors.  Whether  in 
its  municipal  or  in  its  provincial  form,  emperor- 
worship  never  demanded  the  exclusive  allegi- 
ance of  its  devotees.  It  arose  as  a  supplement 
and  not  as  a  rival  of  other  rehgions.  Worship 
rendered  to  the  emperor  did  not  imply  any 
breach  in  one's  allegiance  to  Zeus,  Artemis,  or 
any  other  ancient  deity.  For  pagan  think- 
ing, the  deified  ruler  belonged  in  the  company 
of  the  well-known  gods  of  antiquity,  who  lived 
agreeably  among  themselves,  and  shared  ami- 
cably the  devotions  of  the  same  worshiping 
communities. 

Moreover,  emperor-worship  did  not  originate 
in  the  imperial  palace.  Although  it  early 
assimied  the  character  of  an  official  state  cult, 


30 


The  Revelation  of  John 


it  was  not  in  the  first  instance  forced  upon  the 
provincials  by  formal  imperial  decree,  nor  was 
it  conducted  imder  direct  state  supervision.  On 
the  contrary  it  arose  spontaneously,  inspired  by 
the  provincials'  gratitude  to  Rome  and  admira- 
tion for  her  rulers,  who  had  brought  order  and 
stability  into  the  chaos  of  preceding  years. 
Loyal  performance  of  the  rites  of  the  new 
reUgion  was  a  matter  of  local  or  provincial 
pride  rather  than  an  official  requirement  of  the 
state.  To  be  sure,  the  emperors  encouraged 
this  form  of  religion,  the  wiser  rulers  appre- 
ciating its  value  as  a  stimulus  to  patriotism, 
while  others  used  it  to  sate  their  vanity.  But 
the  real  vitaHty  of  the  cult  was  due  to  the 
provincials,  who  of  their  own  accord  estab- 
lished temples,  conducted  the  worship,  and 
supplied  the  missionary  zeal  necessary  to  insure 
the  success  of  the  new  religion. 

After  the  imperial  cult  became  established 
in  the  popular  esteem  of  the  community,  the 
only  demand  it  made  upon  the  devotees  of 
other  gods  was  additional  worship  of  the 
emperor.  Refusal  to  conform  to  this  popular 
demand  might  readily  be  interpreted  as  dis- 
loyalty to  the  state,  but  this  situation  caused 
pagans  no   trouble.     They   had   no  scruples 


The  Demand  for  Revelation 


31 


against  adding  worship  of  the  emperor  to  their 
previous  devotions.    Jews,  on  the  other  hand, 
refused  outright  to  render  divine  honors  to  any 
pagan  deities,  much  less  to  the  Roman  emperor. 
Yet  even  in  their  case  this  refusal  involved  no 
permanently  serious  consequences.    Toward  the 
close  of  his  reign  Caligula,  the  first  emperor  to 
press  worship  of  himself  upon   his   subjects, 
carried  on  a  bloody  persecution  against  the  Jews 
of  Alexandria,  and  decreed  that  his  image  should 
be  placed  in  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem.    But  his 
successor,    Claudius,    sent    an    edict    to    the 
governor  of  Egypt  approving  of  the  Jews'  un- 
willingness to  call  the  emperor  a  god,  and  grant- 
ing them  full  liberty  to  maintain  their  own 
religious  customs  without  molestation.    Similar 
instructions  were  issued  for  all  the  provinces, 
and  no  further  attempt  was  ever  made  to  force 
emperor-worship  upon  the  Jews.     Their  un- 
willingness to  take  part  in  the  rites  of  the  state 
cult  was  treated  by  the  emperors  as  a  purely 
religious  scruple,  and  not  as  an  evidence  of  dis- 
loyalty.   Since  their  attitude  was  a  traditional 
inheritance   antedating   the   rise   of   emperor- 
worship,  it  was  accepted  as  an  essential  item  of 
Jewish  national  faith,  which  the  Romans  had 
no  intention  of  abohshing. 


32 


The  Revelation  of  John 


V.      THE   SITUATION   OF   THE   CHRISTIANS 

As  compared  with  Judaism,  Christianity 
was  much  less  favorably  situated.  Emperor- 
worship  and  Christianity  were  not  only  two  of 
the  latest  arrivals  among  the  various  religions 
of  Asia;  they  were  also  irreconcilable  competi- 
tors. Several  years  passed  before  the  two 
religions  came  to  an  open  conflict.  Perhaps 
because  of  Christianity's  relatively  scanty  fol- 
lowing and  its  close  genetic  kinship  to  Judaism, 
at  first  little  or  no  attention  was  paid  to  the 
aversion  of  its  followers  for  the  ceremonies  of  the 
imperial  cult.  But  a  gradual  increase  in  num- 
bers and  a  growing  dislike  for  the  new  sect  on 
the  part  of  both  Jews  and  pagans  ultimately  re- 
sulted in  serious  trouble  from  the  officials  of  the 
state  worship.  Christians  followed  the  prece- 
dent of  the  Jews  in  refusing  to  participate  in  the 
rites  of  the  imperial  cult,  but  they  could  not  es- 
tabUsh  a  similar  claim  to  immunity.  Christian- 
ity was  not  an  ancient  national  faith  entitled  to 
recognition  among  the  long-established  reUgions. 
On  the  contrary  it  was  a  new  sect,  entirely  lack- 
ing in  prestige,  and  of  even  more  recent  origin 
than  the  worship  of  the  emperors. 

There  is  much  uncertainty  about  the  exact 
circumstances  under  which  Christians  were  first 


i 


The  Demand  for  Revelation 


33 


compelled  to  declare  themselves  on  the  ques- 
tion of  emperor-worship.  The  initial  move 
against  them  is  not  likely  to  have  come  from 
the  Senate,  the  emperor,  or  even  from  the 
governor  of  the  province.  It  is  far  more  prob- 
able that  their  nonconformity  was  first  noted 
and  magnified  by  zealous  devotees  or  priests, 
of  either  the  municipal  or  the  provincial  impe- 
rial cult,  in  certain  localities  where  the  worship 
of  the  emperor  was  especially  popular.  These 
religious  enthusiasts  endeavored,  and  appar- 
ently with  some  degree  of  success  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Asia  in  John's  day,  to  procure  a  suitable 
form  of  judicial  condemnation  for  Christians 
as  alleged  offenders  against  the  good  order  and 
safety  of  society  and  the  state. 

The  forces  combining  to  call  forth  hostile 
action  against  the  Christians  are  easily  dis- 
cernible. First,  the  Jews  were  Christianity's 
hereditary  enemies,  and  it  is  not  surprising  that, 
whenever  opportunity  offered,  devout  Jews  lent 
their  aid  to  suppress  the  new  rival  religion. 
From  the  Jewish  point  of  view  there  were  ample 
grounds  to  justify  this  hostility.  The  new 
movement  had  caused  certain  of  their  kinsmen 
to  apostatize  from  the  true  faith  of  their  fathers 
by  adopting  Christianity.     It  had  also  drawn 


34 


The  Revelation  oj  John 


The  Demand  for  Revelation 


35 


H 


I 


I 


L 


J 


away  certain  Gentiles  who  by  their  former 
attendance  upon  the  services  of  the  synagogue 
had  constituted  a  body  of  prospective  prose- 
lytes. Even  more  aggravating  was  the  fact 
that  the  Christians  claimed  to  be  the  sole  per- 
petuators  of  true  Jewish  religion  and  the  only 
correct  interpreters  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures. 
But  to  pious  Jews  the  very  use  of  the  Scriptures 
in  these  mixed  Christian  communities,  com- 
posed of  apostate  Jews  and  sinful  Gentiles, 
seemed  a  gross  defilement  of  the  sacred  writ- 
ings. Under  these  circumstances  it  was  to  be 
expected  that  the  Jews  of  the  Dispersion  would 
endeavor,  by  every  possible  means  and  prob- 
ably in  all  good  conscience,  to  impede  the 
progress  of  the  Christian  movement. 

While  the  Jews  were  usually  unable  of 
themselves  to  cause  Christians  serious  trouble, 
it  was  possible  for  them  to  occasion  the  advo- 
cates of  the  new  religion  a  great  deal  of  incon- 
venience by  arousing  the  suspicions  of  the 
Gentiles.  Paul  seems  to  be  speaking  of  a  typical 
experience  when  he  writes  to  the  Thessalonians 
that  the  Jews  "  drove  us  out  and  please  not  God 
and  are  contrary  to  all  men,  forbidding  us  to 
speak  to  the  Gentiles  that  they  may  be  saved."' 

»I  Thess.  2:15  f.;  cf.  II  Cor.  11:24. 


m 


■  V 

i 


'i 


And  the  history  of  the  Christian  mission  among 
Gentiles  as  described  in  the  Book  of  Acts  is  one 
constant  experience  of  Jewish  counter-agitation 
in  an  effort  to  arouse  the  animosity  of  the 
heathen.'  When  attempting  to  awaken  gentile 
hostility,  the  most  effective  accusation  to  lodge 
against  Christians  was  that  they  were  dangerous 
to  the  state.  It  was  on  this  charge  that  Jesus' 
enemies  had  procured  his  condemnation,  and 
a  similar  accusation  was  probably  preferred 
against  his  followers  at  various  times  in  the 
early  history  of  the  movement.  Undoubtedly 
the  Jews  of  Asia  in  John's  day  either  had  insti- 
gated or  had  substantially  aided  the  gentile  per- 
secution, for  which  he  roundly  denounces  them 
as  no  longer  genuine  Jews  but  members  of  a 
synagogue  of  Satan.^  Undoubtedly  Jewish  hos- 
tility was  a  disturbing  fact  with  which  Chris- 
tians had  constantly  to  reckon  in  every  city  of 
the  province  of  Asia. 

Popular  gentile  feeling  toward  Christianity 
had  become  similarly  antagonistic.  The  Thes- 
salonian  converts  were  not  exceptional  in  ex- 
periencing persecution  from  their  countrymen 

«E.g.,  Acts  13:50;  14:2, 19;  17:5  ff-»  13;  18:12  f.;  21:27  ff.; 
23:12 ff.;  25:75. 

•Rev.  2:9;  3:9. 


36 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Demand  for  Revelation 


37 


similar  to  that  which  Jewish  Christians  had 
endured  at  the  hands  of  their  kinsmen/  There 
was  ample  basis  for  this  gentile  hostility.  At 
the  outset  the  heathen  populace  scarcely  dis- 
tinguished Christians  from  Jews,  hence  Chris- 
tianity inherited  the  popular  disfavor  that 
already  attached  to  Judaism.  But  even  after 
Christianity  won  recognition  as  a  separate 
religion,  it  continued  for  many  years  to  be 
regarded  by  Gentiles  as  an  undesirable  oriental 
cult.  Wherever  it  entered  pagan  society  its 
influence  seemed  utterly  disturbing  and  divisive. 
A  convert  to  this  new  faith  could  no  longer 
participate  whole-heartedly  in  the  established 
conventions  of  pagan  family  life.  He  became  a 
negligible,  if  not  indeed  an  actually  disturbing, 
factor  in  the  customary  activities  of  the  gen- 
tile community.  If  he  were  a  zealous  Christian 
of  the  primitive  type,  he  withdrew  his  patron- 
age from  the  public  festivals,  he  ceased  to  be 
a  customer  of  the  image-maker,  he  no  longer 
purchased  victims  for  the  sacrifice,  and  in 
general  he  made  himself  a  voluntary  outcast 
from  pagan  society. 

This  negative  attitude  toward  established 
customs  was  frequently  supplemented   by   a 

*  I  Thess.  2 :  14. 


M 


,".i 
■".i 


■% 


vigorous  polemic  against  the  existing  social  and 
religious  order.  The  gods  of  the  heathen  were 
declared  to  be  no  gods,  but  only  evil  demons, 
and  their  beautiful  images  everywhere  in  evi- 
dence were  denounced  as  dead  and  worthless 
idols  of  wood  or  metal  or  stone,  owing  their 
existence  to  no  higher  authority  than  the  crea- 
tive skill  of  human  hands.  Christian  invective 
was  usually  not  content  with  merely  denoun- 
cing heathen  religion.  The  whole  course  of 
pagan  life  was  included  in  its  condemnation. 
Enthusiasts  of  John's  temper,  and  doubtless 
there  were  many  such  in  the  early  days, 
regarded  the  entire  range  of  gentile  life  as  fun- 
damentally a  product  of  Satanic  activity.  Re- 
ligion, culture,  commerce,  and  all  pleasures  of 
pagan  society  were  uniformly  declared  to  be 
works  of  Satan  which  every  true  Christian 
would  eschew  while  patiently  awaiting  the 
early  return  of  Christ  to  destroy  utterly  the 
present  evil  world  and  inaugurate  a  new  heav- 
enly regime  in  which  none  save  Christians  would 
participate. 

The  gentile  populace,  believing  that  it  had 
sufl&cient  provocation  to  justify  its  violent 
hatred  of  the  early  Christians,  frequently  acted 
upon  its  convictions.    Sometimes  this  hostihty 


38 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Demand  for  Revelation 


39 


!i 


expressed  itself  in  the  form  of  violence  by  the 
mob,  while  at  other  times  it  sought  satisfaction 
by  instigating  the  municipal  or  imperial  author- 
ities to  set  in  motion  some  more  regular  legal 
process  against  the  Christians.  How  far  sweep- 
ing accusations  to  the  effect  that  the  new 
religionists  were  criminals  in  general,  or  that 
they  perpetrated  gross  crimes  in  their  secret 
meetings,  were  effective  in  securing  a  verdict  of 
guilty  in  the  courts  is  quite  uncertain.  Prob- 
ably the  outcome  of  a  trial  would  frequently 
depend  very  largely  upon  local  conditions.  But 
when  the  custom  of  worshiping  the  emperor 
became  sufficiently  popular  to  be  taken  seriously 
by  the  authorities,  and  when  it  became  gener- 
ally known  that  Christians  would  neither  call 
Caesar  Lord  nor  offer  incense  before  his  image, 
the  possibility  of  securing  a  legal  condemnation 
of  Christians  was  greatly  increased. 

This  was  the  new  and  crucial  situation  that 
confronted  John.  The  aggressive  hostility  of 
the  imperial  cult  was  the  danger  that  loomed 
largest  on  his  horizon.  Already  Christian  blood 
had  been  shed  at  Pergamum,  the  first  official 
seat  of  emperor-worship.  In  this  dwelling-place 
of  Satan,  as  John  terms  it,  Antipas  had  held 
fast  the  name  of  Christ,  and  had  paid  for  his 


loyalty  with  his  life.  Christians  of  Smyrna, 
another  important  center  of  the  imperial  cult, 
are  told  that  presently  they  will  be  cast  into 
prison,  and  some  of  their  number  will  be 
"faithful  unto  death."  John  believes  that  an 
hour  of  testing  is  about  to  come  for  the  peoples 
of  the  Roman  Empire  generally,  when  a  sharp 
distinction  will  be  drawn  between  those  who 
consent  and  those  who  refuse  to  worship  the 
head  of  the  imperial  regime. 

As  stated  by  John,  the  crucial  question  at 
issue  is  primarily  that  of  willingness  or  unwill- 
ingness to  worship  the  emperor,  figuratively 
described  as  the  "Beast."  Humanity  falls  into 
just  two  classes,  namely  the  great  majority  who 
yield  to  the  demands  of  the  imperial  priest  and 
worship  at  the  emperor's  shrine,  and  the  small 
minority  who  acknowledge  worshipful  alle- 
giance to  Christ  only.  The  deluded  pagans 
revere  the  beast  and  affirm  that  he  has  neither 
rival  nor  superior.  No  one  is  like  him,  and  no 
one  is  able  to  war  with  him.^  The  helpless 
saints  are  his  victims,  as  he  punishes  them  for 
refusal  to  acknowledge  his  alleged  supremacy, 
and  the  priest  of  the  imperial  cult  is  so  powerful 
that  he  is  able  to  bring  about  the  death  of 

'Rev.  13:4. 


40 


The  Revelation  of  John 


those  who  will  not  submit  to  his  demands.  This 
is  the  distinctive  character  of  the  struggle  which 
John  sees  already  begun  in  his  day,  and  which 
he  thinks  will  proceed  to  its  deadly  issue  in  the 
near  future.  The  eternal  destiny  of  men  hangs 
upon  their  consent  or  their  refusal  to  worship 
the  beast  or  his  image,  receiving  his  mark  or 
his  number  stamped  upon  their  forehead  or 
their  hand.' 

John's  picture  of  the  futiu'e  reeks  with  the 
blood  of  Christians  to  be  slaughtered  for  their 
refusal  to  render  divine  honors  to  the  ruler 
who  personifies  the  imperial  Roman  power. 
Underneath  the  altar  in  heaven  John  sees  in 
his  vision  the  souls  of  those  who  have  been 
killed  for  their  faith,  and  who  there  await  the 
coming  of  their  fellow-servants  and  brethren 
yet  to  be  slain.^  The  heavenly  choir  hymns  the 
praises  of  those  faithful  souls  who  choose  death 
with  loyalty  to  Christ  rather  than  life  upon 
earth  under  the  rule  of  Rome.  Killing  with  the 
sword  is  to  be  the  characteristic  activity  of  the 
imperial  power  in  its  treatment  of  the  Chris- 
tians, but  a  blessing  is  pronounced  upon  all 
those  who  thus  "die  in  the  Lord."    So  reck- 

'Rev.  14:9,  ii;  15:2;  16:10;  19:20;  20:4. 
*Rev.  6:9-11. 


The  Demand  for  Revelation 


41 


lessly  will  Rome  pour  out  the  blood  of  Christians 
that  she  will  become  drunken  with  the  blood 
of  the  saints  and  with  the  blood  of  the  martyrs 
of  Jesus.  Finally,  the  millennial  kingdom  will 
be  populated  by  those  who  have  been  beheaded 
for  their  testimony  to  Jesus,  and  who  have 
refused  to  participate  in  the  rites  of  the  imperial 
cult.' 

The  enemy  whom  John  dreads  is  not  so  much 
a  particular  emperor  as  it  is  the  imperial  Roman 
power,  of  which  the  emperor  and  his  priests  are 
concrete  personifications.  And  Rome  itself  is 
not  a  primary  agent,  but  is  the  instrument  of 
Satan,  who  employs  the  imperial  regime  for 
carrying  out  his  destructive  designs  upon  the 
Christians.  In  John's  thinking  Satan,  the 
devil,  and  the  great  dragon  are  only  different 
terms  for  designating  the  same  hostile  demonic 
power  which  is  ultimately  responsible  for  the 
present  agitation  in  favor  of  emperor-worship.* 
The  climax  of  distress  is  to  be  reached  under 
the  last  emperor,  second  in  line  of  succession 
from  the  ruler  in  power  when  John  writes.^  He 
and  his  zealous  priests,  who  will  force  the  im- 
perial cult  upon  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth, 

'Rev.  12:11;  i3:9f.,  15;  14:13;  16:6;  17:6;  18:24;  20:4. 
•Rev.  12:9,  17;  13:2.  »Rev.  17:10!. 


The  Revelation  of  John 


■.; 


42 

are  both  "beasts"  and  unique  incarnations  of 
demonic  wickedness. 

VI.      TIME  OF  WRITING 

At  what  period  in  their  history  were  the 
Christians  of  Asia  confronted  by  the  situation 
which  the  Book  of  Revelation  depicts  ?  To  be 
sure,  they  had  always  been  objects  of  popular 
suspicion  and  hatred  on  the  part  of  their  Jewish 
and  gentile  contemporaries,  but  during  the 
early  years  of  their  activity  they  had  not  come 
into  any  sharp  or  persistent  conflict  with  the 
Roman  officials.  In  fact  the  Roman  govern- 
ment had  occasionally  proved  itself  a  real  pro- 
tection for  Christians  when  threatened  by  the 
hatred  of  the  populace.  GaUio,  the  proconsul 
of  Achaia,  had  refused  to  prosecute  Paul  on  the 
charges  preferred  by  the  Jews  of  Corinth.* 
Again,  Roman  intervention  saved  Paul  from 
the  violence  of  the  mob  on  the  occasion  of  his 
last  visit  to  Jerusalem.  If  pressed  to  philoso- 
phize on  the  subject,  Paul  and  his  companions 
would  probably  have  said  that  the  imperial 
regime  was  essentially  a  Satanic  affair,  an 
institution  of  this  present  evil  world,  destined 
for  ultimate  destruction  by  the  coming  Messiah, 

'Acts  18:12  fit. 


The  Demand  for  Revelation 


43 


though  temporarily  it  was  a  form  of  control 
ordained  by  God  for  the  well-being  of  this  tran- 
sient evil  age.  Christians  were  admonished  to 
obey  Rome,  regarding  its  political  supremacy 
as  a  real  protection,  a  minister  of  God  to  them 
for  good.' 

In  the  Book  of  Revelation  the  trustful  atti- 
tude of  Christians  toward  the  Roman  state,  as 
exemplified  by  Paul,  gives  place  to  a  feeling  of 
grave  suspicion  and  hot  protest.    The  imperial 
power  itself  has  now  become  the  Christians' 
most  dreaded  foe.    What  events  brought  about 
this  change  of  sentiment?     Nero's  procedure 
against  Christians  is   the  first  known  act  of 
imperial  hostility  toward  the  new  religion.     In 
the  year  64  a.d.  a  large  part  of  the  city  of  Rome 
was  destroyed  by  fire,  with  great  loss  to  life 
and  property.     Popular  report  accused  Nero 
himself  of  having  caused  the  destruction,  in 
order  that  he  might  rebuild  the  city  in  greater 
magnificence.    At  this  rumor  he  became  very 
much  alarmed,  and  vainly  sought  various  means 
of  diverting  suspicion  from  himself.    Finally  he 
hit  upon  the  plan  of  laying  the  blame  upon  the 
Christians,  who  by  this  time  had  become  suf- 
ficiently prominent  in  Rome  to  incur  the  disHke 

'Rom.  13:1-7. 


44 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Demand  for  Revelation 


45 


% 


\ 


of  the  pagan  populace.    The  Roman  historian 
Tacitus  describes  the  incident  as  follows : 

Hence,  to  suppress  the  nimor,  he  falsely  charged 
with  the  guilt,  and  punished  with  the  most  exquisite 
tortures,  the  persons  commonly  called  Christians,  who 
were  hated  for  their  enormities.     Christus,  the  founder 
of  that  name,  was  put  to  death  as  a  criminal  by  Pontius 
Pilate,  procurator  of  Judea  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius. 
But  the  pernicious  superstition,  repressed  for  a  time, 
broke  out  again,  not  only  through  Judea  where  the 
mischief  originated,  but  through  the  city  of  Rome  also, 
whither  all  things  horrible  and  disgraceful  flow  from 
all  quarters  as  to  a  common  receptacle  and  where  they 
are  encouraged.    Accordingly,  first  those  were  seized 
who  confessed  they  were  Christians.     Next,  on  their 
information  a  vast  multitude  were  convicted,  not  so 
much  on  the  charge  of  burning  the  city  as  of  hating 
the  human  race.     And  in  their  deaths  they  were  also 
made  the  subjects  of  sport,  for  they  were  covered  with 
the  hides  of  wild  beasts,  and  worried  to  death  by  dogs, 
or  nailed  to  crosses,  or  set  fire  to,  and  when  day 
declined  burned  to  serve  for  nocturnal  lights.     Nero 
offered  his  own  gardens  for  that  spectacle  and  exhibited 
a  Circensian  game,  indiscriminately  minglmg  with  the 
common  people  in  the  habit  of  a  charioteer,  or  else 
standing  in  his  chariot.     Whence  a  feeling  of  compas- 
sion arose  toward  the  sufferers,  though  guilty  and 
deserving  to  be  made  examples  of  by  capital  punish- 
ment, because  they  seemed  not  to  be  cut  off  for  the 
pubHc  good,  but  victims  to  the  ferocity  of  one  man.' 
'Tacitus  Annals  xv.  44;  cf.  Suetonius  Nero  16. 


To  what  extent  Nero  indulged  in  his  cruel 
sport  at  the  Christians'  expense  during  the 
remainder  of  his  reign,  which  ended  in  68  a.d., 
is  not  definitely  known.  Christian  tradition 
reports  that  both  Peter  and  Paul  met  their 
death  in  the  Neronian  persecutions.  At  the 
close  of  the  first  century  in  a  letter  from  the 
Roman  to  the  Corinthian  church,  after  referring 
to  the  death  of  these  two  illustrious  pioneers, 
the  writer  adds : 

Unto  these  men  of  holy  lives  was  gathered  a  vast 
multitude  of  the  elect,  who  through  many  indignities 
and  tortures,  being  the  victims  of  jealousy,  set  a  brave 
example  among  ourselves.  By  reason  of  jealousy 
women  being  persecuted,  after  they  suffered  cruel  and 
unholy  insults  as  Danaids  and  Dircae,  safely  reached 
the  goal  in  the  race  of  faith  and  received  a  noble  reward, 
feeble  though  they  were  in  body.^ 

Apparently  this  language  harks  back  to  the 
sufferings  imposed  upon  the  Christians  of  Rome 
in  the  time  of  Nero.  These  experiences  must 
have  proved  a  rude  awakening  for  many  Chris- 
tians who  had  previously  looked  upon  Rome  as 
at  least  indifferent  if  not  actually  friendly  to- 
ward their  cause.  There  is  no  evidence,  how- 
ever, that  Nero's  hostility  reached  beyond  the 
city  of  Rome,  for  the  emperor's  concern  was  in 

'  I  Clement  Cor.  6. 


46 


The  Revelation  of  John 


a  distinctly  local  situation.  But  undoubtedly 
accounts  of  the  atrocities  committed  in  the 
capital  were  dramatically  reported  by  survivors, 
who  quickly  spread  the  news  to  all  parts  of 
early  Christendom,  thus  winning  for  Nero  im- 
mortal fame  as  the  first  imperial  persecutor  of 
the  new  religion. 

Despite  his  reputation  as  a  foe  of  Chris- 
tianity, Nero  does  not  seem  to  have  been  pri- 
marily interested  in  crushing  Christianity  as  a 
religion.  Christians  were  proceeded  against 
simply  on  the  basis  of  popular  animosity.  There 
is  no  intimation  that  Nero  was  persecuting  them 
specifically  on  account  of  their  faith,  or  that 
his  object  was  in  any  sense  either  remedial  or 
punitive.  He  neither  sought  to  make  them 
abandon  their  religion,  nor  did  he  persecute 
them  for  refusal  to  give  allegiance  to  any  form 
of  worship  sanctioned  by  the  government.  The 
sole  basis  of  his  action  was  the  alleged  crime  of 
incendiarism,  and  he  apparently  chose  the 
Christians  in  preference  to  any  other  sect  be- 
cause they  seemed  to  him  to  be  the  most  un- 
popular, and  so  to  serve  his  purpose  best.  lA 
reality  he  was  not  deliberately  persecuting  a 
religious  movement;  he  was  merely  making 
scapegoats  of  a  much-disliked  element  in  Roman 


The  Demand  for  Revelation 


47 


society.  Moreover,  it  seems  altogether  prob- 
able that  Christians  were  condemned  without 
fair  trial,  or  perhaps  even  without  the  pretense 
of  a  hearing,,  popular  prejudice  being  regarded 
as  adequate  evidence  of  their  criminality. 

In  the  Book  of  Revelation  the  imperial 
menace  to  Christianity  appears  in  a  much  more 
advanced  stage  of  development.  Persecution 
no  longer  centers  upon  the  Christian  community 
at  Rome,  but  has  extended  to  the  province  of 
Asia.  The  ground  of  hostility  has  also  changed. 
Popular  prejudice  has  not  lessened,  but  Chris- 
tians are  no  longer  condemned  on  any  merely 
general  charge  of  criminality.  They  are  prose- 
cuted on  distinctly  religious  grounds,  more 
especially  for  their  refusal  to  participate  in  the 
rites  of  emperor-worship.  Already  in  some 
cases  severe  action  has  been  taken  against  these 
religious  recalcitrants,  and  John  awaits  with 
much  alarm  the  inauguration  of  a  still  more 
persistent  effort  on  the  part  of  the  Roman 
officials  in  Asia  to  force  Christians  to  comply 
with  the  demand  of  the  pagan  religious  leaders 
of  the  province  who  are  enthusiastically  devoted 
to  the  cult  of  the  emperor. 

John  evidently  assumes  that  court  proceed- 
ings against  Christians  may  be  duly  instituted 


48 


The  Revelation  of  John 


by  local  authorities  and  a  condemnation 
secured  on  a  charge  of  religious  nonconformity. 
It  should  not  be  inferred,  however,  that  the 
Roman  authorities  were  as  yet  aiming  at  the 
complete  extinction  of  Christianity.  Appar- 
ently they  were  merely  demanding  that  Chris- 
tians reverence  the  national  pagan  deities  and 
the  deified  emperor  in  particular.  From  the 
Christian  standpoint  compliance  with  this 
demand  was  synonymous  with  utter  abandon- 
ment of  their  own  faith,  but  the  Romans  prob- 
ably had  no  such  drastic  intention,  nor  would 
they  easily  understand  why  religious  loyalty  to 
Caesar  necessarily  involved  the  Christian  in 
disloyalty  to  his  Christ.  As  John  views  the 
situation,  the  demand  that  Christians  worship 
Caesar  means  utter  apostasy  from  their  own 
faith.  But  in  all  probability  the  Romans, 
accustomed  as  they  were  to  the  worship  of 
different  gods,  had  no  thought  of  completely 
suppressing  the  Christian  cult. 

The  situation  of  the  Asian  Christians  as 
depicted  in  Revelation  can  be  assigned  with  a 
high  degree  of  probability  to  the  latter  part  of 
the  reign  of  Domitian,  who  was  emperor  from 
8i  to  96  A.D.  As  already  observed,  the  condi- 
tions described  by  John  differed  widely  from 


The  Demand  for  Revelation 


49 


those  of  Nero's  time.    Moreover,  among  Nero's 

successors  Domitian  was  the  first  who  is  known 

to  have  stressed  religious  conformity  and  to 

have  been  solicitous  for  the  recognition  of  his 

own  divinity.     Writing  of  this  emperor,  the 

Roman  historian  Cassius  Dio'  says: 

And  the  same  year  [95  a.d.]  Domitian  slew  many 
others  including  even  Flavins  Clemens,  the  consul, 
though  he  was  a  cousin,  and  was  married  to  Flavia 
Domitilla,  herself  a  relative  [niece]  of  Domitian.  The 
charge  brought  against  them  both  was  atheism,  under 
which  many  others  who  drifted  into  Jewish  ways  were 
condemned.  Some  were  killed,  and  others  were  at 
least  deprived  of  their  property.  But  Domitilla  was 
merely  banished  to  Pandateria. 

From  the  Roman  point  of  view  atheism 
would  mean  simply  a  refusal  to  worship  the 
pagan  gods,  and  the  "Jewish  ways"  may  well 
have  been  Cassius  Dio's  method  of  referring  to 
the  Christian  movement.  It  was  very  easy  for 
Gentiles  to  think  of  Christianity  as  an  offshoot 
of  Judaism  even  more  worthy  of  condemnation 
than  was  the  parent  religion.  The  catacombs 
of  Rome  furnish  additional  data  in  support  of 
the  view  that  Flavia  DomitiUa  was  a  Christian. 
As  commonly  interpreted,  one  inscription  states 
that  she  had  given  a  plot  of  ground  to  her 

'  Ixvii.  14;  cf .  Suetonius  Domitian  15. 


so 


The  Revelation  of  John 


freedmen  and  freedwomen  of  the  Christian 
faith  as  a  burying  place  for  them  and  their 
descendants.  Still  another  indication  of  Domi- 
tian's  action  against  the  Christians  is  contained 
in  the  so-called  First  Epistle  of  Clement.  It 
refers  to  the  unexpected  calamities  and  disasters 
which  have  recently  befallen  the  Christians  of 
Rome  in  such  rapid  succession  that  they  have 
been  unable  to  give  due  attention  to  the  Corin- 
thians. At  the  eariiest  the  letter  can  hardly 
have  been  written  before  the  closing  years  of 
the  first  century  a.d.,  and  if  composed  at  that 
time  its  references  to  recent  troubles  of  Chris- 
tians in  Rome  undoubtedly  reflect  conditions 
under  Domitian. 

Domitian  was  not  only  concerned  to  sup- 
press "atheism,''  but  he  also  encouraged  the 
recognition  of  his  own  divinity,  especially  in 
the  provinces.  On  receiving  back  his  divorced 
wife  he  announced  that  he  had  recalled  her  to 
his  ptdvinafy  which  was  the  current  term  to 
designate  the  couch  sacred  to  the  image  of  the 
gods.  He  took  pleasure  in  having  the  populace 
greet  the  royal  pair  in  the  amphitheater  with 
the  salutation  "All  hail  to  our  lord  and  lady," 
and  during  his  lifetime  his  own  genius  was 
included  among  the  deities  by  whom  oaths  were 


The  Demand  for  Revelation 


51 


pledged.  These  vague  implications  of  his 
divinity  become  explicit  assertions  in  his  instruc- 
tions to  his  procurators.  He  informed  them 
that  the  imperial  orders  given  to  the  provincials 
were  to  open  with  the  statement,  "Our  Lord 
and  God  commands  thus  and  so."  According 
to  his  biographer,  Suetonius,'  it  henceforth 
became  a  rule  that  everyone,  whether  in  writing 
or  in  speaking,  address  the  emperor  as  Lord 
and  God. 

This  religious  situation  provided  a  most 
appropriate  setting  for  the  procedure  against 
the  Christians  of  Asia  as  depicted  in  the  Book 
of  Revelation.  Under  these  circumstances  the 
representatives  of  the  Roman  state,  even  in  the 
senatorial  provinces,  would  undoubtedly  be 
eager  to  cater  to  the  vanity  of  their  imperial 
master.  The  zeal  of  both  civil  and  religious 
officials  would  be  greatly  stimulated  by  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  emperor's  desire  for  divine  honors. 
Since  the  imperial  cult  was  older  and  more 
firmly  established  in  Asia  than  in  any  other 
province,  the  Christians  of  this  territory  were 
naturally  the  first  to  suffer  most  severely  from 
this  new  type  of  imperial  hostility.  At  the  time 
John  wrote  the  danger  was  already  a  reality. 

^Dom.  13. 


52 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Demand  for  Revelation 


53 


Perceiving  the  fatal  possibilities  of  its  further 
development  he  anticipated  the  early  outbreak 
of  a  much  more  general  persecution,  designed 
to  force  Christians  everywhere  to  worship  the 

emperor. 

The  foregoing  considerations  fix  within 
approximately  narrow  limits  the  date  at  which 
Revelation  was  written.  The  aggressive  hos- 
tility of  the  imperial  cult  temporarily  abated 
with  the  death  of  Domitian  in  96  a.d.  His 
successor  Nerva  (96-98  a.d.)  inaugurated  a  dis- 
tinctly reactionary  policy,  releasing  those  who 
were  on  trial  for  personal  offenses  against  the 
dignity  of  the  emperor  (majestas)  and  restoring 
the  exiles.  He  also  prohibited  accusations  both 
for  majestas  and  for  "Jewish  living,''  thus  re- 
straining the  activities  of  delators  whose  prac- 
tices Domitian  had  evidently  encouraged. 
Under  the  next  emperor,  Trajan  (98-117  a.d.), 
the  persecution  of  Christians  presents  a  notably 
different  aspect  from  that  of  Domitian's  time, 
as  is  well  known  from  the  extant  correspondence 
between  Trajan  and  Pliny  while  the  latter  was 
governor  of  Bithynia-Pontus.  Hence  the  date 
of  Revelation  must  be  placed  before  the  death 
of  Domitian,  which  occurred  September  18, 
96  A.D.     And  since  Domitian's  religious  megalo- 


mania came  to  expression  most  definitely  in 
the  closing  years  of  his  principate  it  is  very 
probable  that  the  specific  situation  which  called 
forth  the  Book  of  Revelation  became  acute  at 
some  time  between  the  years  90  and  96  a.d. 

This  date  for  the  writing  of  Revelation  is 
corroborated  by  other  sources  of  information. 
Although  ancient  Christian  testimony  on  this 
point  is  not  absolutely  uniform,  the  earUest 
and  most  general  opinion,  first  expressed  near 
the  close  of  the  second  century  by  Irenaeus,  is 
to  the  effect  that  the  book  was  written  toward 
the  close  of  the  reign  of  Domitian.  Further- 
more the  myth  regarding  Nero's  return,  which 
grew  up  in  the  generation  following  his  death, 
had  gained  sufficiently  wide  currency  to  be  used 
by  John  as  a  matter  of  general  knowledge.  He 
also  refers  to  the  successive  princes  of  the 
imperial  line  in  such  a  way  as  to  suggest  that 
his  own  activity  falls  within  the  reign  of  Domi- 
tian.^ Efforts  have  been  made  to  fix  John's 
date  more  exactly  by  means  of  his  reference  to 
oil  and  wine  in  Rev.  6:6.  If  this  remark  was 
prompted  by  Domitian's  edict  ordering  a  reduc- 
tion of  the  vineyards  in  the  provinces,  as  some 

*  For  a  more  extended  exposition  of  John's  references  to  the 
return  of  Nero  and  the  succession  of  imperial  rulers,  see  below, 
pp.  341  ff. 


'III 


1 


54  The  Revelation  of  John 

interpreters  have  surmised,  John  must  have 
been  writing  after  the  year  92  a.d.    It  was  in 
this  year,   according  to  Suetonius,'  that   the 
emperor  issued  a  decree  requiring  the  provin- 
cials to  cut  down  at  least  half  of  their  vines  and 
prohibitmg  the  planting  of  any  new  vines  in 
Italy.    That  the  residents  of  Asia  would  regard 
any  such  stricture  as  a  serious  hardship  is  sug- 
gested by  the  action  of  the  provincial  council 
of  Asia  in  sending  a  representative  to  Domitian 
with  a  request  that  he  rescind  his  order  against 
the  planting  of  vines  in  the  province."     But 
on  the  whole  it  seems  impracticable  to  attempt 
any  more  exact  dating  of  Revelation  than  to 
say  that  the  book  was  written  at  some  time 
between  the  years  90  and  96  a.d. 

vn.    John's  response  to  the  situation 

The  status  of  the  Asian  Christians  during 
the  closing  years  of  Domitian's  reign  set  John 
his  task.  Although  the  specific  demand  calUng 
forth  his  book  was  the  menace  of  emperor- 
worship,  nevertheless  certain  subsidiary  needs 
of  the  time  were  also  taken  into  accoimt  by 
John  when  he  wrote.    From  his  point  of  view 

» Dam.  7  and  14. 

« Philostratus  Lives  of  Sophists  I.  xxi.  la. 


The  Demand  for  Revelation 


55 


the  welfare  of  the  Christians  had  been  imperiled 
by  a  dangerous  development  of  interest  among 
some  of  them  in  worldly  affairs.  Therefore  he 
takes  occasion  in  his  book  to  protest  against 
the  economic  prosperity  of  the  brethren  and  to 
condemn  all  commercial  activities  as  belonging 
to  the  transient  existence  of  this  Satanic  order, 
which  is  doomed  to  early  destruction.  John 
also  feels  called  upon  to  protest  against  any 
compromising  adjustments  between  Chris- 
tianity and  paganism.  Those  Christian  teach- 
ers who  are  proposing  a  more  liberal  attitude 
toward  gentile  culture  are  denounced  as  false 
and  unworthy  of  a  place  within  Christianity. 
Generally  speaking,  John  seems  to  feel  keenly 
the  necessity  of  supplying  the  Asian  churches 
with  exhortations  that  will  serve  as  a  moral  and 
spiritual  tonic. 

But  the  greater  and  more  crucial  demand 
prompting  the  writing  of  the  book  was  the 
rising  menace  of  the  imperial  cult.  Already 
Christians  were  suffering  punishment  for  their 
refusal  to  worship  the  emperor,  and  John  ex- 
pects in  the  near  future  a  still  more  emphatic 
and  widespread  insistence  upon  Christian  con- 
formity to  this  imperial  demand.  In  imagina- 
tion he  sees  the  ancient  and  mighty  Roman 


/^ 


.  i 


S6 


The  Revelation  of  John 


( 


Empire  arrayed  against  the  youthful  and  seem- 
ingly insignificant  Christian  movement.  What 
is  to  be  the  outcome  of  the  conflict?  That 
Christianity  should  compromise  with  this 
heathen  demand  seemed  to  him  out  of  the 
question;  nor  was  there  any  hope  of  relief  from 
a  resort  to  physical  force  such  as  the  Jews  had 
attempted  in  their  revolution  against  Rome. 
Physically  the  odds  in  favor  of  the  Roman 
armies  were  altogether  too  great  to  justify  the 
hope  of  a  Christian  triumph  by  any  ordinary 
attempt  at  armed  resistance.  As  John  viewed 
the  situation,  a  catastrophic  intervention  of 
heavenly  powers  offered  the  only  possible  hope 
of  a  Christian  victory.  God  must  intervene 
and  that  right  early  to  annihilate  Satanic  Rome 
and  establish  a  new  order  of  things  upon  earth. 
In  the  hour  of  distress  and  anxiety  visions  of 
this  impending  heavenly  triumph  inspired  John 
with  new  courage  to  endure  present  afflictions, 
and  his  dominant  motive  in  recording  his 
visions  was  a  desire  to  inspire  in  his  fellow- 
sufferers  a  similar  courage.  The  Book  of  Rev- 
elation was  composed  to  meet  this  pressing 
demand  of  the  hour. 


CHAPTER  II 

TYPICAL  REVELATIONS 

John  and  his  companions  in  trouble  were 
not  the  first  persons  in  the  ancient  world  to  feel 
the  need  of  a  special  revelation,  nor  were  they 
the  first  to  have  their  need  satisfied.  *^In  former 
times  of  distress  men  of  vision  had  ventured  to 
peer  into  the  secrets  of  heaven  and  had  written 
out  accounts  of  their  visions  for  the  admonition 
or  encouragement  of  their  contemporaries.  A 
document  thus  produced  is  commonly  called  a 
revelation,  or,  to  use  the  Greek  derivative,  an 
apocalypse.  Apocalypses  constitute  a  distinct 
type  of  religious  literature,  once  popular  among 
both  Jews  and  Christians,  and  not  entirely  un- 
known to  Gentiles. 

It  is  no  longer  customary  to  write  apoca- 
lypses, nor  is  it  easy  for  moderns  to  understand 
this  antiquated  type  of  literature.  But  with 
John  and  his  readers  the  situation  was  quite 
different.  Christians  who  had  been  reared  in 
Judaism  were  familiar  with  apocalypses  which 
had  been  written  to  meet  various  crises  in 
the  history  of  the  Jews.     These  documents 


57 


S8 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Typical  Revelations 


59 


l>    i 


continued  in  use  among  early  Christians,  who 
also  introduced  them  to  their  gentile  converts. 
To  some  extent  Gentiles,  even  before  coming 
into  contact  with  either  Judaism  or  Christianity, 
were  also  familiar  with  apocalyptic  wisdom. 
On  occasion  pagan  seers,  believing  that  they 
had  extracted  secrets  from  the  world  beyond, 
revealed  them  to  mortals  for  their  enlighten- 
ment and  edification.  That  Christians  pre- 
served a  keen  interest  in  this  form  of  writing 
is  further  shown  by  the  new  Christian  apoca- 
lypses which  arose  during  the  first  and  second 
centuries  a.d.  As  a  result  of  this  situation 
John  and  his  Christian  contemporaries  were 
well  prepared  by  custom  and  interest  to  recog- 
nize the  value  of  a  new  Christian  apocalypse 
for  use  in  the  hour  of  their  special  need.  But 
a  modem  reader  can  learn  to  share  their  feeling 
only  by  acquainting  himself  with  the  apocalyp- 
tic writings  current  in  that  ancient  world. 

I.   APOCALYPTIC  FEATURES  IN  THE  PROPHETS 

In  the  Bible  which  Christians  took  over  from 
Judaism  there  were  numerous  examples  of 
apocalyptic  style.  In  moments  of  high  emo- 
tional stress  the  prophets  occasionally  pre- 
sented their  message  in  pictorial  fashion  as  a 


special  revelation  communicated  to  them  in 
visions.  Certain  portions  of  the  prophetic 
warnings  of  Amos  belong  in  this  class  of  writing. 
Once  he  saw  a  devouring  fire,  typical  of  the 
destruction  that  awaited  the  imrepentant  Israel- 
ites. Then  he  beheld  the  Lord  holding  a  plumb- 
Hne  beside  a  wall,  and  heard  him  exclaim,  ''I 
will  set  a  plumbline  in  the  midst  of  my  people 
Israel.  I  will  not  again  pass  by  them  any 
more."  Another  vision  seen  by  Amos  is  that 
of  a  basket  of  picked  fruit,  to  which  Jehovah 
calls  his  attention,  announcing  that  "the  end 
is  come  upon  my  people  Israel.  I  will  not 
again  pass  by  them  any  more."' 

A  more  highly  colored  apocalyptic  passage 
occurs  in  Isaiah.  In  the  year  of  King  Uzziah's 
death  Isaiah  was  prompted  to  enter  upon  his 
prophetic  work  by  a  vision  of  God  enthroned 
in  the  Holy  of  Holies.  As  the  seraphim  hymned 
the  majesty  of  Jehovah,  Isaiah  was  overcome 
with  the  consciousness  of  his  own  and  his  con- 
temporaries' uncleanness.  But  when  his  lips 
had  been  purged  by  the  touch  of  a  coal  taken 
from  the  altar,  he  responded  to  the  divine 
summons  and  received  his  commission  to  be- 
come a  prophet,  communicating  the  message  of 

«Amos  7:4-9;  8:1  f. 


w 


60 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Typical  Revelations 


61 


the  Lord  to  the  people.'  Thus  not  the  full 
content  of  Isaiah's  preaching,  but  the  funda- 
mental inspiration  for  his  work,  is  represented 
as  the  direct  result  of  a  special  revelation  made 
to  him  at  that  critical  juncture  in  the  history 
of  the  nation  marked  by  the  death  of  the  king. 
Ezekiel  is  a  conspicuous  example  of  a 
prophet  who  delivers  his  message  under  the 
inspiration  of  revelatory  visions.  His  book 
opens  with  the  following  description  of  the 
author's  equipment:  *'Now  it  came  to  pass  in 
the  thirtieth  year,  in  the  fourth  month,  in  the 
fifth  day  of  the  month,  as  I  was  among  the 
captives  by  the  river  Chebar,  that  the  heavens 
were  opened  and  I  saw  visions  of  God."  The 
first  vision  was  that  of  four  winged  creatures, 
bearing  the  likeness  of  a  man,  but  each  with 
four  faces,  one  of  a  man,  one  of  a  lion,  one  of  an 
ox,  and  one  of  an  eagle.  These  were  marvel- 
ously  brilliant  beings  glowing  like  coals  of  fire 
and  moving  with  the  rapidity  of  lightning. 
They  were  accompanied  by  mysterious  wheels, 
with  high  and  dreadful  rims  full  of  eyes,  and 
the  spirit  of  the  winged  creatures  was  in  the 
wheels.  And  when  they  flew,  the  noise  of  their 
wings  was  "like  the  noise  of  great  waters,  like 

'Isa.  6:1-13. 


the  voice  of  the  Almighty,  a  noise  of  tumult  like 
the  noise  of  a  host." 

Above  these  creatures  Ezekiel  saw  the  vision 
of  a  terrifying,  crystal-like  firmament,  sup- 
porting a  throne  resembling  in  magnificence  a 
sapphire,  and  upon  the  throne  sat  the  glory  of 
Jehovah,  anthropomorphically  manifest,  yet 
glowing  like  a  mass  of  molten  metal  and  brilliant 
as  the  splendor  of  the  rainbow.  In  the  presence 
of  this  gorgeous  display  the  prophet  falls  upon 
his  face,  but  is  immediately  ordered  to  arise,  is 
himself  filled  with  the  Spirit,  and  is  given  his 
conmiission  to  preach  to  the  people.  The  divine 
message  is  absorbed  into  his  system  by  eating 
a  book-roll  given  to  him  by  the  hand  of  God. 
This  roll  written  on  both  sides  contains  the 
story  of  lamentation,  mourning,  and  woe  which 
he  is  to  communicate  unto  the  house  of  Israel, 

Ezekiel  represents  himself  as  subject  to 
visions  and  revelations,  and  much  of  his  mes- 
sage is  apocalyptic  in  form.  One  such  striking 
section  of  his  book  is  his  description  of  the 
Temple  in  the  new  Jerusalem,  to  which  the 
weary  exiles  are  promised  a  return.  Ezekiel 
specified  the  year,  the  month,  and  the  very  day 
of  the  month  when  the  hand  of  Jehovah  came 
upon  him  and  in  a  vision  carried  him  into  the 


62 


The  Revelation  of  John 


land  of  Israel,  where  he  witnessed  an  apparition 
of  the  new  city  and  was  visited  by  a  heavenly 
being  who  conveyed  to  him  full  particulars 
regarding  the  measurements  and  equipments 
of  the  new  temple.  The  prophet  is  expressly 
admonished: 

Son  of  man,  behold  with  thine  eyes  and  hear  with 
thine  ears  and  set  thy  heart  upon  all  that  I  shall  show 
thee,  for  to  the  intent  that  I  may  show  them  unto  thee 
art  thou  brought  hither.  Declare  all  that  thou  seest 
to  the  house  of  Israel/ 

Christians  who  had  read  Ezekiel  would  be 
well  prepared  to  hear  many  things  that  might 
otherwise  have  seemed  strange  to  them  in 
John's  apocalypse.  John  in  the  Spirit,  wit- 
nessing visions  of  heaven  and  communicating 
his  experience  to  his  afficted  companions,  plays 
a  r61e  not  unlike  that  of  Ezekiel  equipped  for 
his  work  by  visions  described  in  the  most  ex- 
travagant imager)-  imaginable  to  eye  or  ear. 

Other  apocal)^tic  passages  in  the  prophets 
give  less  attention  to  the  experiences  of  the 
seer,  but  stress  more  particularly  the  content 
.  of  the  apocalyptic  message.  John  was  not  the 
first  writer  to  disclose  God's  program  with 
reference  to  impending  events  of  unusual  im- 

'Ezek.  40:4. 


Typical  Revelations 


63 


portance.  The  agonies  of  the  last  times,  the 
destruction  of  sinners,  the  enactment  of  judg- 
ment, the  allotment  of  future  rewards  and 
punishments,  and  other  critical  happenings  of 
cosmic  importance  were  themes  that  earlier 
religious  writers  had  often  discussed.  The  de- 
tails of  earlier  descriptions  needed  considerable 
interpretation  before  they  could  be  made  to  fit 
the  immediate  needs  of  John  and  his  readers, 
but  the  belief  that  God  from  time  to  time  dis- 
closed his  intentions  in  apocalyptic  pronounce- 
ments was  thoroughly  established  long  before 
the  New  Testament  apocalypse  appeared,  and 
various  examples  of  this  literature  were  un- 
doubtedly known  to  John  and  his  fellow- 
Christians. 

In  the  books  of  the  prophets  early  Chris- 
tians might  read  many  an  illustrative  apocalyp- 
tic utterance  disclosing  Jehovah's  intention  of 
smiting  sinners  with  disaster  and  dealing  merci- 
fully with  the  righteous.  Of  different  passages 
in  the  Book  of  Isaiah,  the  description  of  Edom's 
doom  and  Israel's  reward'  is  typical: 

Come  near  ye  nations  and  hear,  and  hearken,  ye 
peoples  ....  for  Jehovah  hath  indignation  against 
all  the  nations  and  wrath  against  all  their  host 

» Chaps.  34  f . 


64 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Their  slain  also  shall  be  cast  out,  and  the  stench  of 
their  dead  bodies  shall  come  up,  and  the  mountains 
shall  be  melted  with  their  blood.  And  all  the  host  of 
heaven  shall  be  dissolved,  and  the  heavens  shall  be 

rolled  together  as  a  scroll For  my  sword  hath 

drunk  its  fill  in  heaven.  Behold  it  shall  come  down 
upon  Edom  and  upon  the  people  of  my  curse  to 
judgment.  ' 

But  for  Jehovah's  own  people  "the  wilder- 
ness and  the  dry  land  shall  be  glad  and  the 
desert  shall  rejoice  and  blossom  as  the  rose 
....  and  the  ransomed  of  Jehovah  shall  re- 
turn and  come  with  singing  unto  Zion,  and  ever- 
lasting joy  shall  be  upon  their  heads.  They 
shall  obtain  gladness  and  joy,  and  sorrow  and 
sighing  shall  flee  away.''  In  a  similar  vein  but 
under  changed  conditions  John  describes  the 
impending  vengeance  of  God  upon  the  Romans 
and  the  rewards  in  store  for  the  persecuted 
Christians. 

The  prophecy  of  Joel'  also  contains  some 
striking  apocalyptic  descriptions  portraying  the 
coming  of  a  great  and  terrible  day  of  Jehovah, 
when  marvelous  things  shall  occur  in  heaven 
and  earth.  Men  will  witness  "blood  and  fire 
and  pillars  of  smoke.  The  sun  shall  be  turned 
into  darkness  and  the  moon  into  blood."    In 

*JoeI  2:28—3:17. 


Typical  Revelations 


6S 


the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat  all  the  nations  will  be 
assembled  for  judgment  as  Jehovah  exclaims, 
"Put  ye  in  the  sickle  for  the  harvest  is  ripe. 
Come  tread  ye  for  the  winepress  is  full,  the 
vats  overflow,  for  their  wickedness  is  great." 
As  the  time  of  the  great  assize  approaches,  the 
light  fades  from  sun  and  moon  and  the  stars 
cease  to  shine.  When  Jehovah  utters  his 
thunderous  voice  from  Zion  all  creation 
trembles  as  with  a  mighty  earthquake,  but  his 
own  people,  the  children  of  Israel,  will  hail  his 
advent  with  joy,  knowing  that  he  is  their  God 
who  has  come  to  dwell  with  them  in  Zion  and 
to  deliver  their  holy  city  forever  from  the 
power  of  its  foes. 

n.      THE  BOOK  OF  DANIEL 

In  the  Book  of  Daniel,  Old  Testament 
apocalyptic  appears  in  fully  developed  form. 
Daniel  was  written  at  a  very  critical  moment  in 
Jewish  history,  and  in  its  day  was  designed  to 
serve  a  function  similar  to  that  for  which  John 
in  his  day  wrote  Revelation.  During  the  first 
half  of  the  second  century  B.C.  Palestine  was 
undef  the  rule  of  the  Hellenistic  kings  of  Syria, 
who  had  recently  wrested  this  territory  from 
the  Ptolemies  of  Egypt.     The  Syrian  ruler, 


66 


The  Revelation  oJJohn 


Antiochus  IV,  surnamed  Epiphanes,  who 
reigned  from  175  to  164  B.C.,  determined  to 
force  Hellenistic  customs  upon  the  Jews  in  order 
that  Palestine  might  be  thoroughly  assimilated 
into  the  Syrian  kingdom.  Antiochus  sought  to 
accomplish  this  end  by  the  complete  suppres-  ' 
sion  of  the  Jewish  religion  and  the  forcible 
imposition  of  Syrian  religious  rites  upon  the 
Jews.  Jewish  worship  was  forbidden,  and 
Jewish  religious  practices  such  as  Sabbath 
observance  and  circumcision  were  prohibited 
on  pain  of  death.  Heathen  altars  were  estab- 
lished throughout  the  country,  and  the  Jews 
were  ordered  to  offer  sacrifices.  On  the  altar 
of  burnt  offering  in  the  temple  inclosure  in 
Jerusalem  an  altar  to  Zeus  was  erected,  and  on 
December  25,  168  B.C.,  this  sacred  spot  was 
further  desecrated  by  the  sacrifice  of  a  sow. 
Thus  began  a  life-and-death  struggle  which  at 
first  threatened  the  extermination  of  the  Jewish 
people,  though  ultimately  it  issued  in  their 
political  independence  after  a  generation  of 
bloody  conflict. 

The  Book  of  Daniel  arose  during  the  early 
stages  of  this  conflict,  probably  in  167  B.C., 
when  the  sorely  oppressed  Jews  needed  a  special 
revelation  of  this  type  to  comfort  them  in 


Typical  Revelations 


67 


affliction  and  give  them  a  confident  outlook 
upon  the  future.    Instead  of  writing  in  his  own 
name,  the  unknown  author  pictures  Daniel  as 
a  seer  of  ancient  times  living  a  model  life  under 
similarly  distressing  circumstances  and  seeing 
in  his  visions  the  favorable  outcome  of  the 
trying  experiences  through  which  the  Jews  were 
to  pass  in  later  years  at  the  time  when  the  book 
was  actually  written.     The  scene  is  laid  in 
:6abylonia  at  the  court  of  the  king  during  the 
Exile.    In  the  midst  of  heathen  surroundings 
Daniel  and  three  of  his  companions  order  their 
Uves  strictly  according  to  the  requirements  of 
the  Jewish  law,  and  God  rewards  their  fidelity 
by  granting  them  superior  powers  both  physi- 
cally and  mentaUy.     Daniel  in  particular  is 
endowed  with  abUity  to  foresee  future  events 
and  reveal  the  purposes  of  God. 

DaniePs  supernatural  wisdom  was  first  put  to 
the  test  when  King  Nebuchadnezzar  demanded 
that  his  wise  men  tell  him  both  the  content  and 
the  interpretation  of  a  recent  dream  which  had 
caused  him  much  annoyance.  The  wise  men 
protested  against  so  unreasonable  a  demand. 
They  might  have  attempted  an  interpretation, 
but  to  be  required  to  divine  the  content  of 
the  dream  itself  seemed  to  them  beyond  all 


68 


The  Revelation  of  John 


possibility.    Their  failure  gave  Daniel  his  op- 
portunity.    In  answer  to  prayer  God  rewarded 
the  piety  of  Daniel  by  revealing  to  him  in  a 
vision    both    the    content    and    the    meaning 
of  the  king's  dream.    When  admitted  into  the 
presence  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  Daniel  informed 
him  that  the  king  had  beheld  in  his  dream  a 
gigantic  image,  the  head  composed  of  gold  and 
the  breast  and  arms  of  silver,  the  belly  and 
thighs  of  brass,  the  legs  of  iron,  and  the  feet  of 
clay  mingled  with  iron.    These  four  constituent 
elements  represent  four  successive  empires,  and 
the  destruction  of  the  image  by  a  great  stone 
which  smote  it  upon  its  brittle  feet  was  typical 
of  the  overthrow  awaiting  the  last  of  these  four 
empires.    The  golden  head  was  the  kingdom  of 
Babylon,  which  was  presently  to  give  place  to 
the  less  glorious  kingdom  of  the  Medes.    They 
in  turn  were  to  be  supplanted  by  the  Persians. 
The  fourth  kingdom  was  that  of  the  Mace- 
donians, strong  like  iron  while  Alexander  lived, 
but  crumbling  like  clay  under  his  successors,  and 
ultimately  to  perish  by  divine  intervention. 

The  pious  Jews,  persecuted  by  Antiochus, 
were  thus  encouraged  by  the  revelation  of 
Daniel  to  believe  that  their  deliverance  was 
near  at  hand.    If  they  followed  the  righteous 


Typical  Revelations 


69 


example  of  the  seer,  remaining  loyal  to  their 
own  religion  even  in  the  hour  of  severe  perse- 
cution, they  might  momentarily  expect  a  divine 
deliverance  to  be  accomplished  by  the  cata- 
strophic action  of  Jehovah.  He  would  com- 
pletely crush  all  their  enemies  and  establish  for 
them  his  own  eternal  kingdom  upon  earth. 

This  hope  is  confirmed  by  all  that  follows 
in  the  Book  of  Daniel.    The  story  of  Daniel 
and  his  companions,  divinely  delivered  from  the 
fiery  furnace  into  which  they  had  been  thrown 
because  of  their  refusal  to  worship  the  image  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  was  designed  to  encourage 
Jews   in   their  antipathy  for  the  worship  of 
Antiochus.     When  Nebuchadnezzar   dreamed 
another  dream,  forewarning  him  of  an  approach- 
ing period  of  insanity  to  continue  for  seven 
years,   Daniel  again  figured  as   an  infallible 
interpreter.    Readers  were  admonished  to  note 
that  everything  predicted  by  the  seer  was  in 
strict  accordance  with  divine  revelation  and 
always  came  to  pass.     Similarly  Nebuchad- 
nezzar's successor  was  informed  that  the  hand- 
writing on  the  wall  meant  the  doom  of  his 
kingdom,  and  on  that  very  night  "Belshazzar 
the  Chaldean  king  was  slain  and  Darius  the 
Mede  received  the  kingdom."    When  Darius, 


»Q  The  Revelation  of  John 

manifestly  foreshadowing  Antiochus'  efforts  to 
force  worship  of  himself  upon  the  Jews,  de- 
manded that  Daniel  and  his  companions  pray 
to  the  king  only,  their  refusal  was  justified  by 
their  miraculous  deliverance  from  the  den  ot 
lions  into  which  they  had  been  thrown  m  pun- 
ishment for  their  disobedience. 

The  latter  half  of  the  apocalypse  of  Daniel 
recounts  a  series  of  visions  experienced  by  the 
seer  at  different  times,  but  all  having  the  same 
import.    They  are  prophetic  of  the  wonderful 
salvation  which  God  is  about  to  bestow  upon 
his  faithful  people,  delivering  them  from  the 
persecution  of  the  Syrian  kings  and  inaugurat- 
ing a  new  heavenly  regime  upon  earth.    In  the 
first  vision  Daniel  sees  four  beasts  typical  of 
the  four  kingdoms  successively  dominating  the 
world   untU    God   intervenes    to   destroy   aU 
earthly  empires.    During  the  dominion  of  the 
last  beast,  symbolizing  the  ruling  line  to  which 
Antiochus  belongs,  God  is  suddenly  to  appear  m 
judgment,  seated  upon  a  flaming  throne,  from 
which  streams  of  fire  radiate  in  all  directions. 
The  heavenly  host  accompanying  him  numbers 
thousands  of  thousands  and  ten  thousand  tunes 
ten  thousand.    The  books  of  heaven  are  opened, 
judgment  is  pronounced,  the  beast  Antiochus  is 


Typical  Revelations 


n 


slain,  and  his  body  is  committed  to  the  flames. 
After  witnessing  this  judgment  scene,  Daniel's 
gaze  is  directed  toward  a  heavenly  apparition 
typifying  the  triumphant  people  of  God.  He 
beholds  a  figure  descending  upon  the  clouds 
of  heaven,  ''one  like  unto  a  son  of  man,"  who 
approaches  the  throne  of  God  and  is  given 
"  dominion  and  glory  and  a  kingdom,  that  all  the 
peoples,  nations,  and  languages  should  serve 
him;  his  dominion  is  an  everlasting  dominion 
which  shall  not  pass  away,  and  his  kingdom 
that  which  shall  not  be  destroyed."^ 

Another  vision  occurred  two  years  later.  Its 
meaning  is  explained  to  Daniel  by  the  angel 
Gabriel,  who  informs  him  that  the  vision  con- 
cerns the  period  of  the  indignation  and  the 
appointed  time  of  the  end.  Although  the 
apocalyptic  writer  represents  the  event  as  occur- 
ring in  the  third  year  of  Belshazzar's  reign,  he 
finds  its  specific  fulfilment  in  the  experiences  of 
his  own  day.  Accordingly  Daniel  wonders  at 
the  vision,  whose  import  no  one  at  the  time 
understood,  for  "it  belongeth  to  many  days 
to  come."  But  in  the  light  of  subsequent 
history  the  figures  seen  by  Daniel  become 
clearly  intelligible.    The  ram  with  two  horns 

*Dan.  7:13!. 


72 


The  Revelation  of  John 


represent  the  Medes  and  Persians,  and  the  goat 
arising  from  the  west  to  supplant  them  is 
the  victorious  Alexander  the  Great.  The  four 
horns  that  displaced  the  original  single  horn  of 
the  goat  typify  the  four  rulers  who  divided  the 
empire  of  Alexander  among  themselves  after 
his  death.  And  the  king  of  fierce  countenance 
who  is  to  arise  in  the  latter  time  of  their  king- 
dom is  manifestly  the  persecutor  Antiochus. 

The  apocalyptist  seeks  to  give  his  readers 
further  comfort  by  specifying  more  exactly  the 
date  of  the  expected  deliverance.  After  a 
period  of  prayer  Daniel  is  again  visited  by 
Gabriel,  who  informs  him  that  the  seventy  years 
of  Babylonian  captivity  predicted  by  Jeremiah 
really  mean  seventy  weeks  of  years,  that  is,  four 
hundred  and  ninety  years,  to  elapse  between  the 
captivity  and  the  inauguration  of  the  new  age. 
According  to  the  chronology  of  the  author,  these 
seventy  weeks  of  years  fall  into  three  subdivi- 
sions. Seven  weeks  (forty-nine  years)  are  as- 
signed to  the  Exile,  and  sixty-two  weeks  (four 
hundred  and  thirty-four  years')  are  allotted  to 
the  period  from  the  return  of  the  captives  until 
the  beginning  of  final  distress.    This  period  of 

*  Had  the  seer  been  an  accurate  chronologist  rather  than  an 
apocalyptic  visionary,  he  would  have  had  to  deduct  sixty-eight 
years  from  this  number. 


Typical  Revelations 


73 


final  affliction  is  to  endure  one  week  (seven 
years),  and  in  the  middle  of  this  period  the 
persecutor  "shall  cause  the  sacrifice  and  the 
oblation  to  cease."'    Apparently  the  reference 
here  is  to  Antiochus'  desecration  of  the  Temple 
in  December,  i68  B.C.    Thus  the  apocalyptist 
expected  the  special  intervention  of  God  to 
occur  three  and  one-half  years  from  that  date. 
Daniel  is  granted  yet  another  visit  from  the 
angel,  who  comes  to  reveal  to  him  the  secrets 
of  heaven  regarding  God's  plans  for  the  future 
of  the  world.    This  revelation  is  placed  in  the 
third  year  of  Cyrus,  king  of  Persia.    The  seer 
learns  that  three  more  kings  are  to  reign  in 
Persia  before  the  kingdom  falls  into  the  power 
of  Alexander.    The  latter's  dominions  will  soon 
be  divided  into  four  parts,  with  a  strong  branch 
in  Egypt  and  another  strong  house  ruling  in 
Syria.    The  history  of  these  two  ruling  lines, 
the  Ptolemies  and  the  Seleucids,  is  sketched 
down  to  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes, 
whose  wars  with  Egypt  and  persecution  of  the 
Jews  are  described  in  some  detail.    Antiochus' 
life  is  to  end  after  another  successful  period  of 
demon-like    activity.       While    encamped    be- 
tween Jerusalem  and  the  Mediterranean,  after 

'Dan.  9:27. 


y4  The  Revelation  of  John 

his  triumph  in  Egypt,  "he  shaU  come  to  his 
end  and  none  shall  help  him." 

A  brief  period  of  intensified  distress  for  the 
people  of  God  is  to  follow,  but,  since  the  angel 
Michael  is  to  champion  their  cause,  deUverance 
is  at  hand.    Salvation  is  granted  to  "every  one 
that  shall  be  found  written   in   the  book.^ 
Many  of  the  dead  will  be  raised,  some  partici- 
pating in  everlasting  life,  while  others  are  sub- 
jected to  shame  and  everlasting  abhorrence. 
Daniel's  curiosity  about  the  date  of  the  end  is 
answered  by  GabriePs  solemn  assurance  that 
"from  the  time  that  the  continual  burnt  offer- 
ing shall  be  taken  away,  and  the  abomination 
that  maketh  desolate  set  up,  there  shall  be  a 
thousand  two  hundred  and  ninety  days."   That 
is,  aUowing  for  the  insertion  of  one  intercalary 
Jewish  month,  just  three  and  one-half  years  will 
elapse.    Again  it  would  seem  that  the  end  of 
the  old  order  was  fixed  for  three  and  one-half 
years  after  December,  i68  B.C.,  the  date  at 
which  the  sacrifices  in  the  Temple  had  ceased 
and  the  altar  to  Zeus  had  been  erected. 

Such  was  the  consolation  offered  by  the 
author  of  Daniel  to  his  afflicted  contemporaries. 
Centuries  later  Christians,  reading  this  book  in 
the  Ught  of  their  own  crushing  experiences, 


Typical  Revelations 


75 


readily  mterpreted  it  as  a  promise  of  deliver- 
ance from  their  own  woes.  Thus  they  culti- 
vated the  apocalyptic  temper  which  had  in 
large  measure  equipped  them  to  read  and  to 
appreciate  the  Revelation  of  John. 

in.      THE  BOOK  OF  ENOCH 

Several   Jewish   apocalypses   which   never 
found  a  place  in  the  Old  Testament  were  often 
highly  prized  and  widely  used  by  both  Jews  and 
Christians.    The  most  important  of  these  un- 
canonical  apocalypses  is  the  so-called  Book  of 
Enoch.     In  its  present  form  it  is  composite, 
containing  several  different  apocalypses  which 
arose  during  the  second  and  first  centuries  b.c. 
These  documents,  pseudonymously  ascribed  to 
the  patriarch  Enoch,  represent  the  attempts  of 
different  authors  to  mediate  information  and 
help  to  their  contemporaries  by  disclosing  to 
them  the  content  of  numerous  visions  dealing 
with  a  variety  of  subjects. 

In  its  present  arrangement,  which  is  prob- 
ably the  form  in  which  it  was  read  by  early 
Christians,  the  book  opens  with  Enoch's  decla- 
ration that  his  eyes  had  been  opened  by  God. 
The  angels,  who  had  shown  him  a  vision  of  the 
Holy  One  in  the  heavens,  explained  everything 


g  Tfte  Revelation  of  John 

to  him  in  order  that  he  might  record  tWs 
wisdom,  not  for  the  people  of  his  own  genera- 
tion, but  for  a  remote  age  yet  to  come.    The 
first  item  of  information  to  be  disclosed  is  that 
"the  Holy  Great  One  will  come  forth  from  his 
dwelUng  and  the  eternal  God  will  tread  upon 
the  earth   ....  Behold  he  cometh  with  ten 
thousands  of  his  holy  ones  to  execute  judgment 
upon  all  and  to  destroy  all  the  ungodly. 
WhUe  this  is  to  be  a  time  of  trembling  for 
sinners,  the  righteous  have  nothing  to  fear 
smce  they  will  find  mercy  with  God  and  wiU 
be  established  "m  eternal  gladness  and  peace 
all  the  days  of  their  life." 

The  fate  of  the  fallen  angels  is  descnbed  at 
considerable   length.      Enoch    in   his   visions 
beholds  the  place  where  they  dweU  m  eternal 
imprisonment.    In  the  course  of  his  journeying 
under  the  escort  of  angels  of  light  he  is  per- 
mitted to  visit  Sheol,  to  behold  the  luminaries 
of  heaven,  to  view  God's  throne  situated  on  one 
of  seven  magnificent  mountains,  and  to  look 
upon  the  tree  of  life  which  has  been  prepared  for 
the  enjoyment  of  the  righteous  after  the  final 
judgment.    On  returning  to  earth  he  gazes  upon 
the  blessed  Jerusalem,  situated  upon  the  holy 
mountain,  where  joys  await  the  faithful,  and 


Typical  Revelations 


77 


beyond  he  sees  the  accursed  valley  where  sinners 
are  to  be  punished  in  the  sight  of  the  righteous. 
In  introducing  his  second  vision,  the  apoca- 
lyptist  informs  his  readers  that  "till  the  present 
day  such  wisdom  has  never  been  given  by  the 
Lord  of  Spirits  as  I  have  received  according  to 
my  insight."  The  content  of  the  vision  is  dis- 
closed in  a  series  of  parables,  each  concerned 
chiefly  with  the  impending  destruction  of  evil 
and  the  triumph  of  righteousness.  The  first 
parable  opens  with  a  description  of  the  coming 
judgment,  when  "sinners  shall  be  judged  for 
their  sins  and  shall  be  driven  from  the  face  of 

the  earth It  had  been  good  for  them  if 

they  had  not  been  bom."  On  the  other  hand 
the  dwelling-place  of  the  righteous  is  seen  to  be 
an  abode  of  blessedness  under  the  wings  of  the 
Lord  of  Spirits.  The  seer  is  quite  overcome  by 
the  glory  of  the  scene  as  he  beholds  the  majesty 
of  the  Lord  of  Spirits  who  "knows  before  the 
world  was  created  what  is  forever  and  what 
will  be  from  generation  unto  generation.  Those 
who  sleep  not  bless  thee,  they  stand  before  thy 
glory  and  bless,  praise,  and  extol,  saying  Holy, 

holy,  holy  is  the  Lord  of  Spirits Blessed 

be  thou  and  blessed  be  the  name  of  the  Lord 
forever  and  ever."     In  the  presence  of  God 


78 


The  Revelation  oj  John 


stand  thousands  of  thousands  and  ten  thousand 
times  ten  thousand  angeUc  beings.    The  elect 
and  holy  among  mortals  are  given  mansions  in 
heaven,  but  sinners  who  deny  the  name  of  the 
Lord  of  Spirits  are  dragged  off  to  punishment. 
The  same  theme  is  continued  in  the  revela- 
tions of  the  second  parable.     Destruction  is 
decreed  for  sinners,  who  shall  not  ascend  into 
heaven;  nor  shall  they  be  permitted  to  reside 
upon  the  earth.     Presently  God  will  send  his 
Messiah  to  execute  judgment  and  establish  a 
new  heaven  and  a  new  earth:  ^'I  will  trans- 
form the  heaven  and  make  it  an  eternal  blessing 
and  light,  and  I  will  transform  the  earth  and 
make  it  a  blessing,  and  I  will  cause  my  elect 
ones  to  dwell  upon  it,  but  the  sinners  and  evil- 
doers shall  not  set  foot  thereon.''     Enoch  is 
permitted  to  look  upon  the  Messiah,  now  dwell- 
ing in  heaven  ready  to  descend  to  earth  to 
enact  judgment  at  the  command  of  the  Lord  of 
Spirits.     The  seer  is  expUcitly  informed  that 
"  this  Son  of  Man  whom  thou  hast  seen  shall 
put  down  the  kings  and  the  mighty  from  their 
seats  and  shall  loosen  the  reigns  of  the  strong 
and  break  the  teeth  of  the  sinners." 

In  the  meantime  the  righteous  are  slaugh- 
tered, but  theu:  prayer  for  vengeance  will  not 


Typical  Revelations 


79 


be  in  vain.  The  fountain  of  righteousness  is 
inexhaustible,  and  the  coming  judgment  to  be 
inaugurated  with  the  advent  of  the  Son  of  Man 
will  mean  a  complete  vindication  of  the 
righteous.  The  dead  also  will  be  raised  to  share 
the  blessings  of  the  new  age: 

In  those  days  shall  the  earth  also  give  back  that 
which  has  been  entrusted  to  it,  and  Sheol  also  shall 
give  back  that  which  it  has  received,  and  hell  shall  give 
back  that  which  it  owes.  For  in  those  days  the  Elect 
One  [the  Messiah]  shall  arise  and  he  shall  choose  the 
righteous  and  holy  from  among  them,  for  the  day  has 

drawn  nigh  that  they  should  be  saved And  in 

those  days  shall  the  mountains  leap  like  rams,  and  the 
hills  also  shall  skip  like  lambs  satisfied  with  milk,  and 
the  faces  of  all  the  angels  in  heaven  shall  be  Hghted  up 
with  joy.  And  the  earth  shall  rejoice,  and  the  right- 
eous sliall  dwell  upon  it,  and  the  elect  shall  walk 
thereon. 

The  final  scene  in  this  picture  is  the  attack 
of  heathen  powers  upon  the  Messiah  and  his 
righteous  companions.  Evil  angels  will  incite 
the  Parthians  and  Medes  to  break  forth  as 
lions  from  their  lairs  and  as  hungry  wolves 
among  the  flocks.  They  will  invade  Palestine, 
but  on  arriving  before  the  Holy  City  they  will 
be  smitten  by  a  mania  for  self-destruction. 
The    slaughter    will    rage    until    corpses    are 


So 


The  Revelation  of  John 


I 


I 
I 


innumerable,  and  all  their  hosts  will  be  swal- 
lowed up  in  Sheol,  while  the  righteous  gaze  in 
safety  upon  the  destruction  of  their  enemies. 
Thereupon  all  the  Jews  of  the  Dispersion  will 
return  to  Jerusalem  in  triumph  from  east,  west, 
and  south,  wafted  thither  in  a  single  day  upon 
the  winds  of  heaven. 

The  third  parable  also  pictures  the  final 
judgment  to  be  enacted  by  the  Messiah.  A 
rich  blessing  is  pronounced  upon  the  saints,  who 
are  promised  an  eternal  life  of  righteousness  in 
the  presence  of  the  Lord  of  Spirits.  But  ter- 
rible retribution  will  overtake  sinners,  particu- 
larly kings  and  those  who  exalt  themselves 
among  men.  As  the  Messiah  sits  in  judgment 
on  his  throne 
the  word  of  his  mouth  slays  all  sinners  and  all  the 

unrighteous  are  destroyed  from  before  his  face 

And  he  will  deliver  them  to  the  angels  for  punishment 
to  execute  vengeance  on  them  because  they  have 
oppressed  his  children  and  his  elect  and  they  shall  be 
a  spectacle  for  the  righteous  and  for  his  elect  who  shall 
rejoice  over  them  because  the  wrath  of  the  Lord  of 
Spirits  resteth  upon  them  and  his  sword  is  drunk  with 
their  blood. 

But  the  righteous  shall  abide  eternally  with 
God,  and  "with  that  Son  of  Man  shall  they  eat 
and  lie  down  and  rise  up  forever  and  ever." 


Typical  Revelations 


8i 


The  third  main  division  of  Enoch  reveals 
information  about  the  heavenly  bodies.  This 
portion  of  the  book  admirably  illustrates  the 
belief  of  the  ancients  that  astronomical  as  well 
as  religious  and  historical  wisdom  could  be  ob- 
tained from  apocalyptical  writings.  The  same 
God  who  revealed  the  secrets  of  the  future  also 
disclosed  to  a  worthy  seer  the  secret  of  the  sun's 
rising  and  setting  and  its  course  through  the 
ecliptic.  The  changes  in  the  moon,  the  length 
of  the  lunar  year,  the  action  of  the  winds,  and 
other  natural  phenomena  are  all  regarded  as 
the  proper  subject-matter  of  revelation.  The 
apocalyptist  believes  that  the  phenomena  of 
nature  and  the  activities  of  man  are  so  insepa- 
rably linked  together  that  man's  sin  seriously 
affects  the  welfare  of  the  physical  world,  hence 
the  coming  change  in  the  moral  order  involves 
a  corresponding  change  in  the  whole  material 
universe.  The  deeds  of  sinners  result  in  such 
perversion  of  nature's  powers  that  the  years  will 
be  shortened,  the  fields  will  lack  their  usual 
fertility,  the  rains  will  be  withheld,  trees  will 
refuse  to  yield  their  fruit,  the  moon  will  be 
irregular  in  its  appearing,  the  sun  will  deviate 
from  its  course,  and  the  stars  will  forsake  their 
accustomed  orbits. 


'^^ 


82 


The  Revelation  of  John 


If  the  moral  and  physical  orders  are  thus 
closely  related,  Enoch  may  learn  much  that  is 
of  value  for  his  purpose  from  the  book  of  the 
courses    of    the    luminaries    of    the    heavens. 
Guided  by  an  angelic  interpreter  the  seer  care- 
fully observes  the  laws  of  these  luminaries,  and 
thereby  acquires  a  knowledge  of  "how  it  is 
with  regard  to  all  the  years  of  the  world  and 
unto  eternity,  till  the  new  creation  is  accom- 
pHshed  which  dureth  tiU  eternity.''     It  was 
thought  possible  for  ordinary  men  to  forecast 
coming  events  from  the  signs  of  the  times  as 
manifest  upon  the  face  of  nature,  but  one  who 
was  privileged  to  read  the  heavenly  books  upon 
this  subject  had  an  infallible  source  of  informa- 
tion.    Conscious  of   this   superiority,   Enoch 

afl5rmed: 

I  observed  the  heavenly  tablets  and  read  every- 
thing which  was  written  thereon  and  understood  every- 
thing, and  read  the  books  of  all  the  deeds  of  mankind 
and  of  all  the  children  of  flesh  that  shall  be  upon  earth 
to  the  remotest  generations. 

A  fourth  section  of  the  Enoch  apocalypse 
contains  an  account  of  two  dream-visions,  dis- 
closing the  whole  course  of  history  from  the 
deluge  until  the  coming  of  the  messianic  age. 
The  description  follows  historical  lines  down  to 
the  author's  own  day,  which  is  about  ij^o  B.C. 


Typical  Revelations 


83 


At  that  point  the  narrative  takes  on  familiar 
apocalyptic  colors.  The  Gentiles  are  to  make 
a  final  assault  upon  the  Jews.  The  fallen  angels 
and  other  notable  sinners  are  to  be  judged  and 
condemned  to  the  fiery  abyss.  The  old  Jeru- 
salem is  to  be  supplanted  by  a  new  city  greater 
and  loftier  than  the  first.  All  Gentiles  left  upon 
the  earth  will  voluntarily  submit  themselves 
to  the  Jews.  The  righteous  dead  will  be  raised, 
the  Messiah  will  appear,  and  the  new  kingdom 
will  be  established. 

The  concluding  chapters  of  Enoch  are  some- 
what miscellaneous  in  content,  but  in  general 
they  continue  to  stress  the  rewards  in  store  for 
the  righteous  and  the  adversities  awaiting  the 
wicked.    Enoch  admonishes  his  children: 

Let  not  your  spirit  be  troubled  on  account  of  the 
times,  for  the  Holy  and  Great  One  has  appointed  days 

for  all  things And  sin  shall  peri^  in  darkness 

forever  and  shall  no  more  be  seen  from  that  day  for 
evermore. 

The  course  of  history  from  Adam  to  the 
founding  of  the  messianic  kingdom  is  briefly 
rehearsed  in  a  vision  covering  ten  world- weeks, 
the  first  extending  from  Adam  to  Enoch,  the 
second  ending  with  Noah,  the  third  with  Abra- 
ham, the  fourth  with  Moses,  the  fifth  with  the 
building  of  the  first  Temple,  the  sixth  with  the 


84 


The  Revelation  of  John 


captivity,  the  seventh  with  the  publication  of 
this  apocalypse.  The  eighth  week  is  to  see  the 
establishment  of  the  messianic  kingdom,  which 
is  to  endure  until  the  end  of  the  tenth  week. 
Then  will  occur  the  final  judgment,  when  the 
first  heaven  shall  pass  away  and  a  new  heaven 
appear. 

After  repeated  pronouncements  of  doom 
upon  sinners  and  of  blessings  upon  the  right- 
eous, the  book  closes  with  an  admonition  to 
future  generations  not  to  pervert  the  seer's 
visions  but  to  write  down  truthfully  all  his 
words  in  all  languages.  Sinners  are  warned 
against  writing  books  to  perpetuate  their  words, 
which  alter  and  pervert  the  teachings  of  the 
righteous,  but  those  writers  who  follow  truth- 
fully in  the  footsteps  of  the  seer,  neither  altering 
nor  detracting  from  his  words,  will  produce 
books  in  which  the  righteous  and  wise  will 
find  cause  for  joy,  uprightness,  and  much 
wisdom. 

The  Book  of  Enoch  was  popular  among  the 
early  Christians,  who  found  consolation  in  its 
promises  of  deliverance  for  the  afflicted  right- 
eous. It  is  expressly  cited  in  the  Epistle  of 
Jude  as  authority  for  believing  in  a  judgment 
upon  the  ungodly.    It  is  not  at  all  improbable 


Typical  Revelations 


85 


that  John  and  his  readers  would  be  familiar 
with  this  widely  known  Jewish  book,  which  was 
early  translated  into  dififerent  languages  to 
meet  the  needs  of  a  variety  of  readers.  A  better 
preparation  for  the  understanding  of  John's 
book  could  hardly  be  imagined.  A  reading  of 
Enoch  would  make  one  thoroughly  familiar 
with  the  characteristic  paraphernalia  of  apoca- 
lyptic. It  stressed  the  necessity  of  faithfulness 
on  the  part  of  the  righteous  in  times  of  sore 
affliction,  it  emphasized  the  superior  wisdom  of 
the  apocalyptic  seer  who  claimed  to  possess  a 
supernatural  knowledge  received  directly  from 
heaven,  it  vividly  described  the  punishment  in 
store  for  sinners  and  the  rewards  to  be  inherited 
by  the  faithful,  it  depicted  the  terrors  of  the 
last  times  when  even  nature  would  writhe  in 
agony,  it  pictured  the  triumphant  glory  of  the 
heavenly  Messiah  descending  to  earth  to 
slaughter  his  enemies,  it  promised  the  righteous 
membership  in  a  blessed  messianic  kingdom  to 
be  realized  in  a  new  Jerusalem  upon  earth,  it 
forecast  the  complete  destruction  of  demonic 
powers,  it  expressed  a  firm  belief  in  the  resur- 
rection of  the  dead,  and  it  awaited  the  final 
revelation  of  a  new  heaven  and  a  new  earth. 
To  read  Enoch  is  to  open  up  the  whole  field  of 


86 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Typical  Revelations 


87 


apocalyptic  imagery  upon  which  the  author  of 
the  New  Testament  apocalypse  freely  drew. 

IV.      OTHER  JEWISH  APOCALYPSES 

The  writers  of  Daniel  and  Enoch  had  many 
successors  who  from  time  to  time  composed  new 
apocalypses  as  new  needs  arose  in  the  experiences 
of  the  Jewish  people.  These  later  authors  fol- 
lowed the  model  of  apocalyptic  style  set  by  the 
books  of  Daniel  and  Enoch,  furnishing  little  that 
was  new  except  fresh  applications  of  this  im- 
agery to  more  recent  events.  A  brief  examina- 
tion of  certain  special  features  in  these  writings 
may  add  a  few  significant  items  to  one's  prepa- 
ration for  the  understanding  of  John's  book. 

Early  in  the  first  century  a.d.  the  so-called 
Assumption  of  Moses  appeared.  Its  form  is 
that  of  an  address  delivered  to  Joshua  by  Moses 
before  .the  departure  of  the  latter  from  earth, 
and  in  content  it  is  a  revelation  of  the  history 
of  Israel  from  Moses'  own  day  until  the  advent 
of  the  messianic  kingdom.  The  purpose  of  the 
book  is  to  protest  against  the  diversion  of 
Israel's  interests  into  political  channels  and  to 
encourage  piety  while  awaiting  the  personal 
intervention  of  God  on  behalf  of  the  righteous. 
Like  his  contemporaries,  John  the  Baptist  and 


Jesus,  the  author  evidently  had  no  sympathy 
with  the  Zealots'  ambition  to  instigate  a  revolt 
against  Rome.  On  the  contrary  he  advocated  an 
attitude  of  patient  endurance  even  to  martyr- 
dom, confident  that  God  himself  would  vindicate 
the  righteous  when  the  time  arrived  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  messianic  kingdom.  The  descrip- 
tion of  events  attending  the  end  is  characteristic. 

The  Heavenly  One  will  arise  from  his  royal  throne 
and  he  will  go  forth  from  his  holy  habitation  with 
indignation  and  wrath  on  account  of  his  sons.  And 
the  earth  shall  tremble,  to  its  confines  shall  it  be  shaken, 
and  the  high  mountains  shall  be  made  low  and  the  hills 
shall  be  shaken  and  fall.  And  the  horns  of  the  sun 
shall  be  broken  and  he  shall  be  turned  into  darkness, 
and  the  moon  shall  not  give  her  light  and  be  turned 
wholly  into  blood.  And  the  circle  of  the  stars  shall  be 
disturbed.  And  the  sea  shall  retire  into  the  abyss  and 
the  fountains  of  waters  shall  fail  and  the  rivers  shall 
dry  up.  For  the  Most  High  will  arise,  the  eternal  (jod 
alone,  and  he  will  appear  to  punish  the  Gentiles  and  he 
will  destroy  all  their  idols.  Then  thou,  O  Israel,  shalt 
be  happy,  and  thou  shalt  mount  upon  the  necks  and 
wings  of  the  eagle,  and  they  shall  be  ended,  and  God 
will  exalt  thee.  And  he  will  cause  thee  to  approach 
to  the  heaven  of  the  stars  ....  and  thou  shalt  look 
from  on  high  and  shall  see  thy  enemies  in  Gehenna, 
and  thou  shalt  recognize  them  and  rejoice,  and  thou 
shalt  give  thanks  and  confess  thy  creator.* 

^Asmp.  M,  10:3-10. 


t  f 


88 


The  Revelation  of  John 


1 


■  ) 


Another  apocalyptic  work  composed  by  a 
Jew  of  Egypt  during  the  first  part  of  the  firs* 
century  a.d.  is  known  as  the  Secrets  of  Enoch 
It  receives  its  name  from  the  fact  that  it  pur 
ports  to  disclose  the  secrets  of  God  as  revealed 
to  Enoch.  As  the  seer  was  led  through  the 
various  heavens  he  beheld  many  wonderful 
things,  among  which  were  the  punishments  im- 
posed upon  sinners  and  the  blessings  awarded 
the  righteous.  In  Paradise  he  found  a  wealth 
of  sweet  flowering  trees,  bearing  an  abundance 
of  fragrant  fruit$.  Towering  above  them  all 
was  the  Tree  of  Life,  magnificently  adorned 
and  yielding  all  manner  of  fruits.  Out  of  the 
springs  of  Paradise  flowed  milk,  honey,  oil,  and 
wine.  The  garden  was  kept  by  three  hundred 
angels,  who  sang  continually  their  sweet  music, 
and  every  hour  of  every  day  served  the  Lord 
with  never-silent  voices.  Such  is  the  eternal  in- 
heritance of  the  righteous,  who  upon  earth  have 
endured  all  manner  of  offense  from  those  that 
exasperate  their  souls,  but  who  have  walked 
without  fault  before  the  face  of  the  Lord. 

The  abode  of  the  wicked  was  also  revealed 
to  Enoch.  It  was  a  very  terrible  place  filled 
with  all  manner  of  tortures  and  enshrouded  in 
cruel  darkness.    Its  only  light  was  the  murky 


t 

) 
i  I 


N 


Typical  Revelations 


89 


flames  that  shot  aloft  from  the  fiery  pit  in 
which  sinners  were  suffering  their  punishment. 
Every  form  of  suffering  was  there.  Every- 
where was  fire,  frost,  ice,  thirst,  shivering.  Fear- 
ful and  merciless  angels,  equipped  with  angry 
weapons,  added  to  the  terrors  of  the  place. 
Such  were  the  torments  in  store  for  those  who 
upon  earth  had  dishonored  God  by  their  im- 
moralities, magical  practices,  thefts,  lies,  cal- 
umnies, fornications,  murders,  oppressions  of 
the  poor,  and  idolatries. 

On  arriving  in  the  tenth  heaven,  Enoch 
found  himself  in  the  very  presence  of  God,  who 
gave  him  instruction  regarding  the  creation  of 
the  world.  Each  day  of  creation  represents  a 
thousand  years  of  duration,  so  that  at  the  end 
of  seven  thousand  years  a  new  and  eternal 
world  is  to  appear.  The  present  age  will  close 
with  a  great  judgment,  after  which  there  will 
be  neither  months  nor  days  nor  hours,  but  one 
eternal  aeon  to  be  inherited  by  the  righteous, 
"and  they  will  live  eternally  and  then  too  there 
will  be  amongst  them  neither  labor  nor  sick- 
ness nor  humiliation  nor  anxiety  nor  need  nor 
violence  nor  night  nor  darkness  but  great  light." 

After  learning  this  divine  wisdom  Enoch  was 
sent  back  to  earth  for  thirty  days  to  instruct 


/ 


90 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Typical  Revelations 


91 


his  children  in  the  secrets  of  heaven,  and  to 
urge  upon  them  the  importance  of  living  in  the 
fear  of  the  Lord.  On  completing  his  stay  of 
thirty  days  upon  earth,  during  which  time  he 
wrote  three  hundred  and  sixty-six  books  for 
the  instruction  of  his  sons,  he  was  caught  up 
again  to  the  highest  heaven,  where  he  dwelt 
with  God. 

Other  Jewish  revelations,  written  at  approx- 
imately the  same  time  as  John's  book,  further 
attest  the  prevalence  of  apocalyptic  imagery  in 
the  religious  thinking  of  that  age.  In  the  latter 
part  of  the  first,  or  early  in  the  second,  century 
A.D.  an  Apocalypse  of  Abraham  was  written  to 
explain  the  cause  of  suffering  and  encourage 
the  hope  of  salvation.  Abraham  is  instructed 
to  make  ready  a  sacrifice  in  preparation  for  a 
divine  revelation  regarding  his  descendants. 
Guided  by  the  angel  Jaoel,  Abraham  is  carried 
to  the  celestial  regions,  where  he  beholds  God 
upon  his  throne,  surrounded  by  cherubim  and 
other  holy  creatures.  After  revealing  the 
secrets  of  heaven  to  Abraham,  God  promises 
him  descendants  as  numerous  and  as  powerful 
as  the  stars.  He  beholds  the  assembled  Jewish 
people  on  God's  right  hand  and  the  Gentiles 
on  his  left  hand. 


A  vision  of  impending  judgment  reveals  the 
punishment  of  the  heathen  who  had  slaugh- 
tered the  people  of  God,  burnt  their  temple,  and 
plundered  their  holy  place.  The  period  of 
affiction  is  to  endure  "twelve  years."  Then 
will  come  the  end  of  the  ungodly  age,  when 
judgment  will  overtake  the  lawless  heathen,  A 
brief  period  of  aggravated  distress  will  precede 
the  end,  when  all  the  creatures  of  the  earth 
will  be  smitten  with  ten  plagues.  The  first  is 
an  affliction  of  great  pain,  the  second  is  a  con- 
flagration of  many  cities,  the  third  is  a  destruc- 
tion and  pestilence  of  animals,  the  fourth  is 
famine,  the  fifth  is  destruction  of  rulers  by 
earthquake  and  war,  the  sixth  is  storm,  hafl, 
and  snow,  the  seventh  is  slaughter  by  wfld 
beasts,  the  eighth  is  alternating  famine  and 
pestilence,  the  ninth  is  destruction  by  sword 
and  warfare,  the  tenth  is  a  terrifying  display 
of  thunder,  voices,  and  earthquake. 

The  elect  wiU  survive  these  agonies,  since 
their  number  has  been  predetermined.  God  re- 
veals to  Abraham  the  sure  reward  of  his  faith- 
ful seed.  "They  shall  live  and  be  established 
through  sacrifices  and  gifts  of  righteousness 
and  truth  in  the  age  of  the  righteous,  and  shaU 
rejoice  in  me  continually."    But  destruction 


92 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Typical  Revelations 


93 


ii 


awaits  the  wicked.  God  promises  to  send  his 
Elect  One,  the  Messiah,  who  will  gather  the 
despised  people  of  Israel  from  among  the 
nations,  casting  into  the  fire  those  who  have 
insulted  them,  and  who  have  ruled  them  during 
the  ungodly  age. 

The  fall  of  Jerusalem  and  the  destruction  of 
the  Temple  by  the  Romans  in  70  a.d.  was  a 
staggering  blow  to  the  Jews.  This  calamity, 
followed  by  further  unhappy  experiences  during 
the  next  half-century,  called  forth  two  more 
noteworthy  and  very  similar  revelations  known 
respectively  as  the  Apocalypse  of  Baruch  and 
IV  Ezra.  The  book  of  Baruch  purports  to 
record  the  visions  experienced  by  Jeremiah's 
scribe,  Baruch,  soon  after  the  first  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  by  the  Babylonian  king  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. But  it  is  perfectly  evident  that  the  real 
author,  or  authors,  whose  identity  is  unknown, 
lived  in  the  Roman  period  and  wrote  to  cheer 
afficted  Jews  in  the  latter  part  of  the  first  cen- 
tury A.D.  The  purpose  of  the  book  is  similar  to 
that  of  all  apocalyptic  writings.  Even  though 
sinners  may  seem  to  be  temporarily  triumphant, 
the  righteous  are  admonished  to  persist  in  their 
piety,  believing  that  God  in  his  own  good  time 
will  come  to  their  assistance  in  order  to  bestow 


upon  them  a  glorious  reward  and  to  mete  out 
terrible  punishments  to  their  enemies. 

When  the  captives  are  carried  off  to  Baby- 
lonia, Baruch  is  represented  as  remaining  be- 
hind among  the  ruins  of  the  city.  On  falling 
asleep  he  has  a  vision  of  a  proud  cedar  tree, 
typifying  the  haughty  Roman  Empire.  When 
God  interprets  the  vision  to  Baruch  the  course 
of  future  history,  up  to  the  coming  of  the  Mes- 
siah, is  disclosed.  The  seer  is  informed  that  the 
Babylonian  kingdom  is  to  be  succeeded  by  the 
dominion  of  the  Persians,  who  in  turn  are  to 
be  subjugated  by  the  Greeks.  Lastly  a  fourth 
kingdom,  that  of  the  Romans,  will  arise,  whose 
power  will  be  harsh  and  evil  far  beyond  that  of 
its  predecessors.  Though  exalting  itself  more 
than  the  cedars  of  Lebanon,  the  Roman  Empire 
will  ultimately  be  brought  to  a  sudden  and 
inglorious  end  by  the  advent  of  God's  Messiah. 
This  heavenly  prince  will  slaughter  the  Roman 
host,  saving  alive  the  last  emperor  only.  Of 
his  fate  God  explicitly  instructs  Baruch: 

He  shall  be  bound  and  they  shall  take  him  up  to 
Mount  Zion,  and  my  Messiah  shall  convict  him  of  all 
his  impieties,  and  shall  gather  and  set  before  him  all 
the  works  of  his  hosts.  And  afterward  he  shall  put 
him  to  death  and  protect  the  rest  of  my  people  which 
shall  be  found  in  the  place  which  I  have  chosen. 


Ilil 


fit 
III 


94 


The  Revelation  of  John 


After  a  period  of  fasting  Baruch  is  favored 
with  further  revelations  prophetic  of  the  coming 
golden  age  of  messianic  rule.  As  this  event 
draws  near  the  terrors  of  the  last  times  increase, 
but  the  righteous  who  survive  will  be  fittingly 
rewarded,  and  those  who  have  died  will  be 
restored  to  life.  To  Baruch's  inquiry  God  him- 
self replies: 

The  earth  shall  then  assuredly  restore  the  dead, 
which  it  now  receiveth  in  order  to  preserve  them.  It 
shall  make  no  change  in  their  form,  but  as  it  hath 
received  so  shall  it  restore  them,  and  as  I  deliver  them 
unto  it  so  shall  it  raise  them. 

Judgment  is  to  follow  the  resurrection.  Sinners 
will  be  consigned  to  torment,  while  the  right- 
eous shall  be  given  a  splendor  surpassing  that 
of  angels.  In  this  faith  the  pious  sufferers 
await  expectantly  the  day  of  their  vindication, 

for  the  youth  of  the  world  is  past,  and  the  strength 
of  the  creation  is  already  exhausted,  and  the  advent  of 
the  times  is  very  short,  yea,  they  have  passed  by.  And 
the  pitcher  is  near  the  cistem,  and  the  ship  to  the  port, 
and  the  course  of  the  journey  to  the  city,  and  Ufe  to 
its  consummation. 

Like  the  Apocalypse  of  Baruch,  IV  Ezra  was 
called  into  existence  by  the  calamities  that 
overtook  the  Jews  in  the  latter  part  of  the  first 
century  a.d.    In  content  the  book  describes 


>' 


Typical  Revelations 


95 


seven  visions  of  Ezra  in  the  time  of  the  Exile, 
but  the  grief  of  the  ancient  seer  over  the  destruc- 
tion  of  Jerusalem  by   the  Babylonians   is   a 
patent  literary  device  for  expressing  grief  over 
the  havoc  recently  wrought  by  the  Romans  in 
the  Holy  City.    Ezra  begs  to  know  why  Israel, 
whom  God  has  chosen  above  all  peoples  as  his 
own  peculiar  possession,  should  be  permitted  to 
suffer  so  severely  at  the  hands  of  sinners.    In 
answer  to  this  prayer  an  angel  assures  Ezra 
that  God's  love  for  Israel  has  not  in  the  least 
abated,  but  that  his  designs  for  the  world  are 
too    comprehensive    and    far-reaching    to    be 
readily  grasped  by  mortals.     The  divine  plan 
embraces  a  glorious  ultimate  deliverance  for 
his  people.     The  present  world,  however,  is 
evil,  and  its  evils  must  continue  to  multiply 
until  the  appointed  time  for  divine  intervention 
arrives.    Increase  of  agonies  may  well  give 
cheer  and  courage,  since  the  acceleration  of 
distress  brings  near  the  impending  catastrophic 
end.    The  signs  of  the  last  times  are  revealed 
to  the  seer,  "Behold  the  days  come  when  the 
inhabitants  of  the  earth  shall  be  seized  with 
great  panic,  and  the  way  of  truth  shall  be 
hidden,  and  the  lands  be  barren  of  faith."    As 
the  end  approaches,  all  nature  will  be  out  of 


96 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Typical  Revelations 


97 


[ 
) 


li 


joint.  The  sun  will  suddenly  appear  in  the 
midnight  sky,  and  the  moon  will  shine  by  day. 
Blood  will  trickle  from  wood,  and  stones  will 
speak.  The  fish  in,  the  sea  will  die,  wide  gaps 
will  appear  in  the  earth,  volcanic  eruptions  will 
occur,  wild  beasts  will  come  forth  from  their 
haunts,  monsters  will  be  born  of  human  par- 
ents, ignorance  will  prevail,  and  sin  will  gain 
the  upper  hand. 

Ezra's  second  and  third  visions  are  con- 
cerned with  the  same  general  problem.  He 
receives  new  assurances  that  this  present  evil 
age  is  fast  hastening  to  its  end.  But  a  new  age, 
to  be  created  by  God  himself,  is  held  in  store 
for  the  faithful.  When  wickedness  has  reached 
the  climax  to  which  it  is  rapidly  approaching,  the 
new  Jerusalem  will  be  revealed.  Here  right- 
eous Israel  will  dwell  with  the  Messiah  in  perfect 
bliss  for  four  hundred  years.  At  the  end  of  this 
period  all  will  die,  the  Messiah  included,  and 
creation  will  return  to  the  silence  of  primeval 
chaos.  Then  will  follow  the  new  creation,  when 
the  dead  will  be  raised,  the  righteous  receiving 
their  reward  in  Paradise  while  the  wicked  are 
delivered  to  punishment  in  Gehenna. 

The  fourth  vision  reveals  the  glories  of  the 
heavenly  Jerusalem  prepared  for  the  righteous. 


This  promise  of  the  restoration  of  Zion's  glory  is 

given  to  Ezra  particularly  to  assuage  his  sorrow: 

The  Most  High  seeing  that  thou  art  grieved  deeply 
and  art  distressed  whole-heartedly  on  account  of  her, 
hath  showed  thee  the  brilliance  of  her  glory  and  her 
majestic  beauty. 

The  fifth  vision  portrays  the  downfall  of 
Rome.  The  seer  beholds  a  monstrous  eagle 
with  many  wings  and  three  heads,  typifying  the 
imperial  Roman  power.  While  Ezra  gazes  upon 
this  creature,  a  lion  symbolizing  the  Messiah 
appears  upon  the  scene  and  pronounces  the 
early  destruction  of  the  eagle : 

Thou  hast  wielded  power  over  the  world  with  great 
terror,  and  over  all  the  inhabited  earth  with  grievous 

oppression Then  the  Most  High  regarded  his 

times,  and  lo  they  were  ended,  and  his  ages  and  they 
were  fulfilled.  Therefore  shalt  thou  disappear,  O 
thou  eagle,  and  thy  horrible  wings  and  thy  Httle  wings 
most  evil,  thy  harm-dealing  heads,  thy  hurtful  talons, 
and  all  thy  worthless  body. 

Thus  the  Jewish  seer  is  firmly  convinced  that  he 
stands  at  the  end  of  the  age  when  the  downfall 
of  haughty  Rome  is  imminent.  In  this  convic- 
tion he  occupied  common  ground  with  his  Chris- 
tian contemporary  John,  who  for  very  different 
reasons  predicted  an  equally  sweeping  destruc- 
tion of  the  Roman  Empire  through  the  cata- 
strophic intervention  of  God  and  his  Messiah. 


98 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Typical  Revelations 


99 


I  i 


til 


iltii 


A  brief  description  of  the  Messiah's  appear- 
ing is  the  subject  of  Ezra's  sixth  vision.  A 
figure  in  the  form  of  a  man,  arising  out  of  the 
sea,  is  seen  flying  with  the  clouds  of  heaven 
and  striking  terror  into  everything  upon  which 
he  fixes  his  gaze.  The  hostile  heathen  hosts 
which  oppose  him  are  quickly  devoured  by  a 
fiery  stream  of  flaming  breath  proceeding  from 
his  mouth.  Following  this  marvelous  triumph 
his  peaceable  subjects  assemble  to  participate 
in  the  new  messianic  kingdom. 

The  seer  is  favored  with  a  seventh  and  final 
vision,  in  which  he  receives  assurance  that  his 
own  translation  to  the  heavenly  regions  is  at 
hand.  There  he  will  dwell  with  the  Messiah 
and  his  companions  until  the  end  of  the  age, 
which  is  hastening  to  a  close.  The  world  had 
already  passed  through  nine  and  a  half  of  the 
total  twelve  periods  marking  its  completed 
course.  Grown  weak  through  age,  its  power 
to  resist  the  forces  of  evil  will  rapidly  decline. 
Consequently  those  who  continue  upon  earth 
will  suffer  even  greater  distresses  than  have 
already  been  experienced  in  Rome's  de- 
struction of  the  Jewish  state.  But  the  pious 
Jews  should  not  lose  heart,  since  God's  plan 
involves    the    early    destruction    of    Roman 


rule    and    the    establishment  of  a  messianic 
regime. 

Such  in  outline  is  the  history  of  apocalyptic 
writing  among  Jews.  Particularly  from  the 
time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  to  the  destruction 
of  the  Jewish  state  by  Rome  pious  seers  fre- 
quently resorted  to  apocalyptic  visions  as  a 
source  of  inspiration  for  the  faithful  in  periods 
of  sore  distress.  The  persistence  of  these  Jew- 
ish revelations  amply  attests  the  popularity 
and  value  of  this  type  of  literature  for  people 
of  that  age.  When  the  Christian  apocalyptist 
John  held  out  to  his  suffering  companions  the 
hope  of  an  early  end  of  the  world  and  the  speedy 
advent  of  a  heavenly  messianic  kingdom  as  a 
sure  way  of  escape  from  Roman  oppression,  he 
was  following  a  well-beaten  path  leading  past 
many  familiar  landmarks.  In  confidently  re- 
sorting to  apocalyptic  imagery  for  a  solution 
of  his  difficulties  he  was  moving  in  an  atmos- 
phere thoroughly  congenial  to  many  Christians, 
acquainted  as  they  were  with  these  Jewish 
antecedents  of  their  own  religion. 

V.      GENTILE  APOCALYPSES 

While  it  is  unquestionably  true  that  Chris- 
tianity inherited  its  taste  for  apocalyptic  mainly 


lOO 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Typical  Revelations 


lOI 


i 


m 


from  Judaism,  a  similar  interest,  though  ex- 
pressed in  quite  different  form,  was  to  some 
extent  present  among  Gentiles  even  before  their 
conversion  to  Christianity.  Greeks  and  Romans 
frequently  viewed  the  present  order  of  exist- 
ence pessimistically,  and  predicted  an  increase 
of  evils  until  the  time  for  the  catastrophic  dis- 
solution of  the  world  approached.  Nor  were 
Gentiles  without  hope  of  the  advent  of  a  new 
ideal  age.  In  constructing  their  picture  of  the 
future  the  note  of  immediacy  was  far  less  pro- 
nounced than  in  most  Jewish  apocalypses,  and 
the  imagery  employed  by  Gentiles  to  depict  the 
transformation  lacks  the  dramatic  features  that 
characterize  the  Jewish  descriptions  of  their 
Messiah's  advent.  But  dissatisfaction  with 
the  present  world,  a  belief  in  its  further  deteri- 
oration, a  conviction  that  it  was  doomed  to 
ultimate  catastrophe,  and  the  expectation  of 
a  great  renewal  of  creation  were  convictions 
already  fixed  in  the  minds  of  many  Gentiles 
before  they  came  into  contact  with  either 
Judaism  or  Christianity.^ 

These  phases  of  gentile  thinking  constituted 
a  helpful  preparation  for  the  free  use  of  Jewish 

*For  details  regarding  these  gentile  hopes  see  S.  J.  Case, 
The  Millennial  Hope,  chap.  i. 


apocalyptic  imagery  by  early  Christians  in 
gentile  territory.  But  among  the  heathen 
these  cosmic  speculations  belonged  in  their 
mythologies  and  philosophies,  and  did  not  form 
the  subject-matter  of  their  apocalyptic.  It  was 
usually  concerned  more  exclusively  with  the 
future  of  the  individual  in  the  regions  of  tor- 
ment or  of  bliss  beyond  the  grave.  While  these 
individual  interests  also  find  recognition  in 
various  Jewish  and  early  Christian  revelations, 
they  are  here  generally  subordinated  to  the 
larger  cosmic  program  which  is  the  seer's  chief 
concern.  On  the  other  hand,  the  gentile  seer 
is  usually  content  with  simply  bringing  to  his 
contemporaries  a  message  from  the  other  world 
to  warn  them  of  the  dangers  that  there  await 
sinners  and  to  cheer  them  with  a  promise  of 
rewards  for  the  worthy.  A  few  examples  of 
gentile  apocalypses  will  serve  to  acquaint  the 
modern  reader  with  this  form  of  imagery  so 
familiar  to  the  Greek-speaking  world  of  early 
Christian  times. 

Every  Greek  boy  in  ancient  tioies  knew 
the  content  of  the  Homeric  poems  as  well  as  the 
modern  youth  knows  his  nursery  rhymes  or  the 
stories  narrated  in  his  primer.  The  eleventh 
book  of  the  Odyssey  describes  a  visit  of  Odysseus 


I02^ 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Typical  Revelations 


103 


to  Hades  in  search  of  information  regarding 
the  possibility  of  a  successful  return  to  his 
native  land  after  his  long  absence  in  the  Trojan 
War.  His  quest  is  rewarded  by  the  seer 
Teiresias,  who  informs  him  that  the  homeward 
journey  will  be  fraught  with  many  perils  to  be 
escaped  only  by  carefully  heeding  the  wishes  of 
the  deathless  gods.  By  following  the  instruc- 
tions of  the  seer  Odysseus  is  ultimately  to 
accomplish  a  safe  return,  after  which  he  will 
live  to  a  ripe  old  age  and  die  in  peace  among 
his  friends.  The  seer  supports  his  revelation 
with  the  solemn  assertion,  *^This  that  I  say  is 
truth.'' 

Other  items  of  interest  are  also  revealed  to 
Odysseus  during  his  visit  to  the  nether  regions. 
He  is  privileged  to  converse  with  his  mother, 
whose  death  has  occurred  during  his  absence. 
She  tells  him  news  of  his  wife  and  other  mem- 
bers of  the  family  still  alive  and  anxiously 
awaiting  his  return.  He  also  learns  that  even 
the  blessed  dead  have  but  a  shadowy  and  joy- 
less existence,  grievous  to  the  sight  of  the  living, 
from  whom  they  are  separated  by  great  rivers 
and  dreadful  streams.  On  endeavoring  to 
embrace  his  mother  he  learns  that  now  she  is 
only  an  intangible  spirit.     She  informs  him 


that  the  body  does  not  survive  the  funeral 
pyre,  "for  the  sinews  no  more  bind  together  the 
flesh  and  the  bones,  but  the  great  force  of  burn- 
ing fire  abolishes  these  so  soon  as  the  life  hath 
left  the  white  bones,  and  the  spirit  like  a  dream 
flies  forth  and  hovers  near.''  Among  other 
sights  disclosed  to  Odysseus  is  the  judgment 
hall  of  Minos,  who  sits  on  his  throne  passing 
sentence  on  the  dead  as  they  come  into  his 
presence.  The  life  of  the  worthy  dead  in 
Hades  is  a  shadowy  replica  of  their  earthly 
careers,  as  when  Orion  is  seen  pursuing  the  very 
same  wild  beasts  that  he  had  slain  on  earth. 
Real  torture  seems  to  be  reserved  for  only  noted 
characters.  Odysseus  beholds  Tityos  stretched 
upon  the  ground  with  vultures  constantly  gnaw- 
ing at  his  liver.  Tantalus  is  shown  in  grievous 
torment,  vainly  striving  to  quench  his  thirst 
with  the  ever-receding  water,  or  with  the  fruits 
which  constantly  elude  his  grasp.  Sisyphus  is 
also  seen  perpetually  engaged  in  the  fruitless 
eflort  to  roll  a  monstrous  stone  to  the  brow  of 
a  hill. 

When  these  secrets  of  the  other  world  had 
been  revealed  to  Odysseus  he  returned  again 
to  earth  with  new  courage  to  resume  his 
wandering.    But  the  apocalyptic  wisdom  thus 


m 


I04 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Typical  Revelations 


loS 


m 


lllfii 


lll'lli 


acquired  not  only  assured  him  of  a  successful 
homeward  journey.  It  also  served  the  poet 
as  a  means  of  satisfying  popular  curiosity 
regarding  conditions  in  the  world  beyond  the 
grave. 

An  ancient  and  popular  medium  of  divine 
revelation  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  was 
the  Sibyl,  who  "sang  to  mortal  men  prophecies 
of  events  yet  to  come."  Tradition  reported 
that  a  Sibyl  at  Delphi  had  foretold  events  lead- 
ing up  to  the  Trojan  War,  and  had  predicted  its 
successful  outcome  for  the  Greeks.  She  uttered 
her  revelations  in  verse  while  in  a  state  of 
frenzy  induced  by  inspiration  of  the  deity  by 
whom  she  was  thought  to  be  possessed.  Ecstasy 
was  a  characteristic  equipment  of  different 
Sibylline  prophetesses.  Only  when  the  deity 
had  thus  filled  them  with  his  own  mind  were 
they  able  to  behold  the  course  of  coming  events 
which  it  was  their  mission  to  reveal  to  sup- 
pliants. With  free  play  of  the  poetic  imagina- 
tion, yet  true  to  popular  notions,  Virgil 
describes  the  Cumaean  Sibyl  in  action: 

Suddenly  her  countenance  and  her  hue  changed, 
and  her  tresses  fell  disordered.  Her  bosom  panted, 
her  wild  heart  swelled  with  fury,  and  she  grew  taller 
to  the  view,  and  her  voice  rang  out  not  of  mortality, 
now  that  the  god  breathed  on  her  in  nearer  presence. 


Before  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  Era 
ten  Sibyls  of  repute  were  known,  and  their 
reported  utterances  had  come  to  constitute  a 
recognized  body  of  literature,  part  of  which  the 
Roman  state  had  officially  set  aside  as  a  unique 
source  of  divine  wisdom  to  be  formally  con- 
sulted at  especially  critical  moments  in  history. 
Although  only  stray  fragments  of  these  ancient 
Sibylline  verses  have  survived,  this  form  of 
literature  was  once  so  popular  that  both  Jews 
and  Christians  adopted  it  as  a  vehicle  for  con- 
veying their  respective  messages  to  the  heathen. 
The  Sibylline  oracles  still  extant  are  a  conglom- 
erate of  heathen,  Jewish,  and  Christian  apoca- 
lyptic utterances,  but  their  survival  in  Jewish 
and  Christian  circles  is  an  enduring  testimony  to 
the  popularity  originally  enjoyed  by  this  type  of 
thinking  among  Gentiles  in  ancient  times. 

More  in  line  with  the  Homeric  account  of 
Odysseus,  one  of  the  speakers  in  Plato's 
Republic^  recites  a  popular  legend  regarding  the 
experiences  of  a  certain  Er.  His  soul  left  the 
body  for  twelve  days,  during  which  time  he 
was  permitted  to  observe  the  activities  of  dis- 
embodied spirits.  He  visited  the  halls  of  judg- 
ment where  the  righteous  were  being  directed 

'x.  614  ff. 


io6 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Typical  Revelations 


107 


on  their  way  heavenward,  while  the  unjust  were 
commanded  to  descend  to  the  lower  regions. 
In  the  same  locality  he  also  saw  souls  return- 
ing, some  from  hell  and  some  fi*om  heaven, 
to  receive  a  new  incarnation.  Here  he  heard 
conversations  regarding  heaven  or  hell  and 
learned  that  hell  was  a  place  of  grievous  tor- 
ment, but  heaven  a  place  of  inconceivable 
beauty.  Judgments  were  so  apportioned  as  to 
make  the  sinner  suffer  tenfold  for  his  wrong- 
doing, while  "the  rewards  of  beneficence  and 
justice  and  holiness  were  in  the  same  propor- 
tion." When  adequate  punishment  had  been 
administered  souls  were  permitted  to  return  to 
earth  for  another  incarnation.  Only  to  cruel 
tyrants  or  great  criminals  was  this  privilege 
of  reincarnation  denied.  These  persons  were 
consigned  to  eternal  torment  in  hell,  where 
wild  men  of  fiery  aspect  bound  them  hand 
and  foot,  flayed  them  with  scourges,  and 
carded  them  on  thorns  like  wool.  He  also 
learned  of  the  responsibility  which  rested 
upon  a  soul  to  decide  the  manner  of  its  next 
incarnation  and  the  terrible  mistakes  it  might 
make  unless  it  had  acquired  philosophic 
instruction  during  its  previous  sojourn  upon 
earth. 


Such  was  the  revelation  made  to  Er.  In 
order  that  he  might  be  the  messenger  of  the 
other  world  to  men,  "they  bade  him  hear  and 
see  all  that  was  to  be  heard  and  seen  in  that 
place."  The  speaker  in  the  dialogue  rehearses 
the  story  for  its  practical  value.     It 

may  be  our  salvation,  if  we  are  obedient  to  the  word 

spoken Wherefore  my  counsel  is  that  we  hold 

fast  to  the  heavenly  way  and  follow  after  justice  and 
virtue  always,  considering  that  the  soul  is  immortal 
and  able  to  endure  every  sort  of  good  and  every  sort 
of  evil. 

Another  example  of  a  gentile  apocalypse  is 
Cicero's  account  of  the  dream  of  Scipio.     On 
the  night  after  Publius  Cornelius  Scipio  arrived 
in  Africa  he  beheld  in  a  vision  his  grandfather 
Africanus,    who   opened   up    the   future   and 
revealed   to   Scipio  secrets  of  heaven.     The 
younger  man  was  informed  that  he  would  one 
day  overthrow  Carthage  and  serve  the  Romans 
in  other  remarkable  ways.    As  an  inducement 
to  fidelity  in  the  service  of  his  country  he  was 
assured  that  heaven  holds  in  store  an  endless 
duration  of  happiness  for  all  who  have  preserved 
or  assisted   or  improved   their  country.     On 
inquiring  whether  his  father  Paulus  stUl  lives, 
the  latter  immediately  appears  to  admonish  the 


illfii 


1 


io8 


The  Revelation  of  John 


son  to  cultivate  piety  and  justice  particularly 
toward  his  country,  for  "such  a  life  is  the  path 
to  heaven  and  the  assembly  of  those  who  have 
Uved  before  and  who  having  been  released  from 
their  bodies,  inhabit  that  place  which  thou 
beholdest."  The  arrangement  of  the  heavenly 
regions  is  shown  to  Scipio,  where  the  souls  of 
noble  men  exist  previous  to  their  descent  to 
earth,  and  whither  they  return  when  their 
earthly  course  has  been  run. 

The  apocalyptic  motif  finds  expression  again 
in  Virgil,  who  describes  the  wonderful  things 
revealed  to  Aeneas  on  the  occasion  of  his  visit 
to  the  lower  regions.'  First  he  views  the  place 
of  torment,  which  is  described  much  more 
vividly  and  with  more  detail  than  in  Homer. 
Sinners  of  various  types  are  receiving  due  pun- 
ishments, the  lesson  being  that  men  should 
learn  to  do  justice  and  contemn  not  the  gods. 
So  frightful  are  the  sufferings  that  the  narrator 
exclaims,  ''Not  though  a  thousand  tongues  were 
mine,  a  hundred  mouths,  and  a  voice  of  iron, 
could  I  number  all  those  forms  of  crime  or 
rehearse  the  tale  of  vengeance." 

The  abodes  of  the  blessed  offer  Aeneas  a  very 
different  picture.     The  region  is  one  of  pure 

^Aeneid  vi.  57a  ff. 


Typical  Revelations 


109 


delight,  where  heroes  of  the  past  are  seen  enjoy- 
ing their  well-earned  rewards : 

Here  was  the  company  of  them  who  battled  and 
bled  for  their  fatherland;  here  they  who  were  priests  and 
holy  while  life  knew  them  still;  they  who  were  loyal 
bards  and  sang  meetly  for  Phoebus'  ear,  or  ennobled 
life  by  arts  discovered;  with  all  whose  service  to  their 
kind  won  them  remembrance  among  men. 

But  a  still  greater  encouragement  to  Aeneas  are 
the  disclosures  made  to  him  by  his  father 
Anchises,  whom  he  meets  in  these  regions. 
Ascending  an  eminence  from  which  their  gaze 
can  range  widely  over  the  plain,  Aeneas  is 
shown  the  future  glories  of  the  Roman  nation 
which  he  is  to  found  as  a  result  of  his  long  and 
perilous  wanderings.  He  is  assured  that  one 
day  glorious  Rome  shall  "bound  her  empire  by 
the  earth,  her  pride  by  Olympus.'' 

This  survey  of  gentile  apocalyptic  may  be 
concluded  with  an  illustration  from  Plutarch,' 
who  was  a  contemporary  of  the  author  of 
Revelation.  The  story  is  told  of  a  certain 
Thespesius  of  Soli,  a  very  wicked  youth,  whose 
course  of  life  was  completely  changed  by  a 
vision  of  the  tortures  of  hell  revealed  to  him 
durmg  a  three  days'  visit  made  by  his  soul  in 

'  Concerning  Whom  God  Is  Slow  to  Punish  22  flf. 


no 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Typical  Revelations 


III 


the  world  of  the  dead.  So  thoroughly  was  his 
life  transformed  by  this  experience  that  there- 
after no  one  excelled  him  either  in  justice,  or  in 
piety  toward  the  gods,  or  in  hostility  to  wicked- 
ness, or  in  devotion  to  friends. 

Thespesius,  temporarily  freed  from  his  body, 
found  himself  among  a  throng  of  departed 
spirits  on  their  way  through  the  air  to  the  halls 
of  justice.  Here  he  learned  that  there  were 
three  gradations  of  punishment.  The  first  and 
mildest  was  in  the  form  of  bodily  afflictions 
suffered  during  one's  lifetime.  The  second  was 
more  severe,  but  also  occurred  upon  earth,  and 
was  effected  through  the  civil  administration  of 
justice.  The  third  and  most  drastic  was  en- 
acted after  death  upon  those  sinners  who  had 
not  been  cured  by  the  punishments  of  earth. 
In  the  life  beyond,  these  recalcitrant  spirits 
were  hounded  about  from  place  to  place,  unable 
to  find  shelter  or  relief,  being  afflicted  with  a 
thousand  miseries,  and  finally  plunged  head- 
long into  "an  invisible  abyss,  the  hideousness 
of  which  no  tongue  can  express." 

Thespesius  endeavored  to  describe  the  tor- 
ments which  he  was  permitted  to  see.  Among 
the  throng  he  beheld  his  own  father,  full  of 
stripes,  gashes,  and  scars,  tormented  for  once 


having  poisoned  several  of  his  guests  in  order  to 
possess  himself  of  their  wealth.    He  had  died 
without  divulging  his  secret,  but  after  death 
the  marks  of  the  evil  deed  were  easily  dis- 
covered upon  his  naked  soul,  and  retribution 
was  therefore  inevitable.    Punishments  of  the 
wicked  assumed  a  great  variety  of  forms,  corre- 
sponding with  the  magnitude  of  the  sins  com- 
mitted.    One    favorite    type    of    torture    was 
infflcted  by  demons  who  first  plunged  souls 
into  a  lake  of  boiling  gold,  from  which  they 
were  suddenly  thrown  into  a  frigid  lake  of  lead, 
and  after  this  they  were  dragged  over  a  rough 
mass  of  iron.     These  and  similar  torments  were 
repeated  time  and  again,  while  the  sufferers 
howled  in  agony  over  the  memory  of  what  they 
had  already  endured,  and  cringed  before  new 
tortures  to  which  they  were  ever  being  dragged 
by  their  tormentors. 

Finally  Thespesius  saw  the  souls  of  those 
who  were  to  be  given  a  second  life  upon  earth 
after  receiving  their  due  meed  of  punishment. 
A  reference  to  Nero  in  this  connection  is  of 
particular  interest  to  the  student  of  Revelation: 

Among  the  rest  he  saw  the  soul  of  Nero  many 
ways  most  grievously  tortured,  but  more  especially 
transfixed  with  iron  nails.     This  soul  the  workmen 


lilliih 


112 


The  Revelation  of  John 


m 


took  in  hand,  but  when  they  had  forged  it  into  the 
form  of  one  of  Pindar's  vipers,  which  eats  its  way  to 
life  through  the  bowels  of  the  female,  of  a  sudden  a 
conspicuous  light  shone  out  and  a  voice  was  heard 
out  of  the  Hght  which  gave  order  for  the  transfiguring 
it  again  into  the  shape  of  some  more  mild  and  gentle 
creature.  And  so  they  made  it  to  resemble  one  of 
those  creatures  that  usually  sing  and  croak  about  the 
sides  of  ponds  and  marshes.  For  Indeed  he  had  in 
some  measure  been  punished  for  the  crimes  he  had 
committed.  Besides  there  was  some  compassion  due 
to  him  from  the  gods,  for  that  he  had  restored  the 
Grecians  to  their  Uberty,  a  nation  the  most  noble  and 
best  beloved  of  the  gods  among  all  his  subjects. 

VI.      CHRISTIAN  APOCALYPSES 

The  Revelation  of  John  was  not  the  only 
apocalypse  produced  by  early  Christians.  Al- 
most half  a  century  earlier,  in  the  second 
chapter  of  the  second  letter  to  the  Thessa- 
lonians,  Paul  had  briefly  recounted  the  course 
of  events  to  attend  the  coming  of  the  end  of 
the  world.  He  predicted  an  increase  of  evil  to 
culminate  in  the  apparent  triumph  of  the  man 
of  sin,  who  would  take  possession  of  the  temple 
and  set  himself  up  as  God.  In  Paul's  day 
this  demonic  power  was  being  temporarily  re- 
strained, but  presently,  when  the  restraint 
should  be  removed,  Paul  expected  the  lawless 


Typical  Revelations  1 13 

one  to  be  revealed  in  all  his  wickedness.  Then 
the  heavenly  Christ  would  descend  in  power  to 
destroy  all  the  works  of  Satan. 

The  thirteenth  chapter  of  Mark,  reproduced 
in  Matthew  and  Luke,  also  contains  a  smaU 
apocalypse.    In  characteristic  Jewish  fashion  it 
predicts  a  succession  of  terrors  to  precede  the 
end  of  the  world.    False  Messiahs  wiU  appear, 
endeavoring  to  lead  astray  the  faithful,  whUe 
wars,  earthquakes,  and  famines  will  prevail. 
As  the  new  religion  spreads  through  gentile 
lands  Christians  will  suffer  persecution,  being 
hated  by  all  men,  but  their  deliverance  through 
the  return  of  Christ  is  not  far  off.     Great  tribu- 
lation is  to  come  upon  the  people  of  Judea, 
tribulation  such  as  has  not  been  witnessed  upon 
earth  since  the  world  was  created.    This  period 
of  distress,  which  God  will  make  brief  for  the 
elect's  sake,  is  to  be  followed  by  a  collapse  of 
nature's  powers,  exhibited  in  the  darkening  of 
sun  and  moon,  in  the  falling  of  the  stars,  and  in 
the  shaking  of  the  heavens.    Then  the  Son  of 
Man  wiU  appear  in  his  glory  to  gather  together 
the  elect  in  the  new  kingdom.    The  people  of 
Mark's  day  were  consoled  by  the  assurance 
that  the  period  of  waiting  for  Christ's  return 
would  be  comparatively  brief.    The  exact  hour 


m 


114 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Typical  Revelations 


"S 


of  his  coming  was  known  to  none  save  the 
Father,  yet  the  momentous  event  would  occur 
during  the  lifetime  of  some  of  Jesus'  own 
contemporaries.^ 

The  foregoing  iUustrations  of  Christian  apoc- 
alyptic current  before  the  Book  of  Revelation 
was  written  are  typical  of  an  interest  which 
dominates  the  outlook  of  Paul  and  which  is 
prominent  in  many  passages  of  the  first  three 
Gospels.  While  the  development  of  apocalyptic 
imagery  in  Revelation  is  much  more  elaborate 
than  in  any  extant  Christian  writing  of  an 
earlier  date,  the  theme  itself  is  certainly  not 
new  to  John.  Nor  did  interest  in  the  subject 
cease  with  the  publication  of  his  book.  This 
interest  continued  to  manifest  itself  both  in  the 
preservation  by  Christians  of  current  Jewish 
works  and  in  the  composition  of  new  Christian 
apocalypses. 

Several  examples  of  Jewish  writings  recast 
or  supplemented  to  produce  Christian  apoca- 
lypses might  be  cited.  The  book  commonly 
known  as  the  Ascension  of  Isaiah  is  in  its  present 
form  a  combination  of  a  Jewish  account  of 
Isaiah's  martyrdom  with  two  apocalyptic  Chris- 
tian supplements,  one  known  as  the  Testament 

'Mark  9:1;   13:32. 


of  Hezekiah  and  the  other  as  the  Vision  of 
Isaiah.  Probably  these  combined  works  in 
their  present  form  first  appeared  at  some  time 
in  the  second  century  a.d.,  but  the  Christian 
parts  may  have  arisen  at  an  earlier  date  and 
have  been  almost  contemporaneous  with  the 
Book  of  Revelation. 

The  Testament  of  Hezekiah  records  that 
Isaiah  had  foreseen  and  revealed  to  King  Heze- 
kiah the  course  of  Christian  history  from  the 
time  of  Jesus'  activity  to  the  end  of  the  age. 
The  prophet  is  said  to  have  disclosed  such  out- 
standing items  of  alleged  future  history  as  the 
descent  of  Jesus  from  heaven,  his  career  upon 
earth,  including  his  crucifixion,  burial,  and 
resurrection,  his  commission  given  to  the  dis- 
ciples, the  early  successes  of  the  new  religion, 
the  rise  of  evils  in  the  church,  and  the  last  great 
persecution  of  Christians  by  the  Roman  imperial 
power  under  the  leadership  of  a  reincarnated 
Satanic  Nero,  who  plays  the  part  of  the  tradi- 
tional antichrist.  The  climactic  period  of  dis- 
tress to  endure  three  years,  seven  months,  and 
twenty-seven  days  is  to  be  followed  by  the  ap- 
pearing of  Jesus  accompanied  by  the  armies  of 
heaven  to  overthrow  Satan  and  drag  him  down 
into  Gehenna.    The  faithful  will  be  rewarded, 


ii6 


The  Revelation  of  John 


I      f 

I 


the  dead  saints  descending  with  Christ,  and  the 
living  righteous  being  preserved  to  share  the 
blessings  of  the  new  order  in  which  the  Lord 
himself  ministers  to  those  who  have  kept  faith- 
ful watch  for  his  coming.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  godless  who  have  served  Satan  will  be  con- 
sumed by  the  fire  of  divine  judgment. 

In  the  Vision  of  Isaiah  the  content  of  the 
seer's  message  is  much  the  same  as  in  the  Testa- 
ment of  Hezekiah,  but  the  experiences  of  the 
seer  are  described  with  greater  detail.  The 
scene  is  laid  in  the  court  of  King  Hezekiah. 
With  the  king  were  his  advisers,  all  the  princes 
of  Israel,  and  prophets  and  sons  of  the  prophets 
who  had  come  from  the  surrounding  country  to 
hear  Isaiah's  message.  When  they  had  as- 
sembled, Isaiah  being  in  their  midst,  they 
suddenly  heard  a  door  opening  and  the  Holy 
Spirit  uttering  a  voice.  Thereupon  the  seer 
passed  into  a  trance  of  which  a  very  realistic 
description  is  given: 

He  became  silent,  and  his  mind  was  taken  up  from 
him,  and  he  saw  not  the  men  that  stood  before  him, 
though  his  eyes  indeed  were  open.  Moreover  his  lips 
were  silent  and  the  mind  in  his  body  was  taken  up 
from  him.  But  his  breath  was  in  him,  for  he  was 
seeing  a  vision.  And  the  angel  who  was  sent  to  make 
him  see,  was  not  of  this  firmament,  nor  was  he  of  the 


Typical  Revelations 


117 


angels  of  the  glory  of  this  world,  but  he  had  come 

from  the  seventh  heaven And  the  vision  which 

the  holy  Isaiah  saw  was  not  from  this  world,  but  from 
the  world  which  is  hidden  from  the  flesh. 

In  narrating  the  content  of  his  vision  Isaiah 
describes  his  journey  upward   through   each 
heaven  to  the  seventh  and  last,  where  God 
himself  dwells  together  with  Christ,  innumerable 
angels,  the  angel  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  all 
deceased  righteous,   among  whom  Abel  and 
Enoch  in  particular  are  mentioned.    Here  the 
seer  learns  that  Christ  will  one  day  descend  into 
the  worid,  passing  unrecognized  on  his  journey 
downward  to  earth.    The  events  of  his  earthly 
career,  his  triumph  over  death,  his  commission 
given  to  the  Twelve,  and  his  victorious  return 
to  the  seventh  heaven  are  clearly  witnessed  by 
Isaiah  in  his  vision.     On  returning  to  his  body 
he  narrates  his  experiences  to  Hezekiah,  assur- 
ing  him  that  "both  the  end  of  this  worid  and  all 
this  vision  wiU  be  consummated  in  the  last 
generations." 

In  its  present  form  the  previously  described 
Apocalypse  of  Ezra  also  contains  Christian  sup- 
plements, both  at  the  beginning  and  at  the 
close  of  the  book.  Large  portions  of  the  Sibyl- 
line books  were  composed  by  Christians,  who 


ill 


ii8 


The  Reflation  of  John 


Typical  Revelations 


119 


followed  the  example  of  their  Jewish  prede- 
cessors in  imitating  this  type  of  gentile  apoca- 
lypse. Perhaps  the  lost  Oracles  of  Hystaspes 
occasionally  referred  to  in  early  Christian  liter- 
ature were  also  originally  Jewish  works  sub- 
sequently revised  in  accordance  with  a  more 
distinctly  Christian  point  of  view.  Evidently 
Christians  felt  no  hesitation  in  thus  enlarging 
or  recasting  Jewish  apocalyptic  writings  to 
meet  their  own  peculiar  needs,  but  at  the  same 
time  they  also  appropriated  without  essential 
alteration  many  Jewish  revelations,  which  con- 
tinued to  be  widely  read  in  Christian  circles. 

Of  the  many  new  Christian  apocalypses 
written  after  the  time  of  John,  it  will  suffice  for 
purposes  of  illustration  to  cite  only  two,  the 
so-called  Apocalypse  of  Peter  and  the  Shepherd 
of  Hermas.  The  authors  of  these  books  are 
among  the  earliest  of  John's  successors,  and 
while  their  writings  illustrate  the  persistence  of 
Christian  interest  in  apocalyptic,  they  also 
show  a  marked  tendency  to  develop  the  theme 
along  new  lines  suitable  to  the  new  needs  of  the 
gentile  Christian  communities. 

Before  the  end  of  the  second  century  a.d. 
these  two  writings  had  come  to  be  so  highly 
esteemed  that  they  almost  obtained  recognition 


•« 


;».) 


among  the  group  of  Christian  books  which 
ultimately  attained  the  rank  of  a  new  Holy 
Scripture,  worthy  of  a  place  beside  the  Old 
Testament  in  the  pubUc  worship  of  the  churches. 
The  so-called  Muratorian  canon  contains  the 
following: 

Moreover  of  apocalypses  we  receive  that  of  John 
and  of  Peter  only,  although  certain  of  us  will  not  have 
the  latter  read  in  the  church.  Indeed,  Hermas  quite 
recently  in  our  own  times  composed  the  Shepherd  in 
the  city  of  Rome,  while  his  brother  Pius  occupied  the 
seat  of  bishop  of  the  Roman  church  (about  140-55  a.d.), 
and  therefore  it  ought  to  be  read  in  private.  But 
to  the  people  in  the  church  even  to  the  end  of  the 
age  it  can  never  be  read  either  among  the  prophets,  for 
their  number  is  complete,  or  among  the  apostles. 

Thus  it  would  appear  that  both  books  were  in 
existence  at  least  as  early  as  the  year  150  a.d. 
Although  the  Apocalypse  of  Peter  has  sur- 
vived only  in  fragmentary  form,  it  evidently 
was  composed  along  the  lines  of  gentile  rather 
than  of  Jewish  apocalyptic.  Its  chief  concern 
is  not  with  the  future  of  the  world  but  with 
that  of  the  individual,  and  it  describes  both  the 
blessings  of  the  righteous  and  the  torments  of 
the  wicked  in  characteristic  gentile  fashion.  It 
represents  Jesus  and  the  disciples  on  their  way 
to  a  certain  mountain,  where  the  disciples  ask 


"I 


M 


120 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Typical  Revelations 


121 


1 1 
I 


to  be  shown  one  of  their  departed  brethren  in 
order  that  those  still  upon  earth  may  be  encour- 
aged by  an  assurance  of  future  blessedness.  In 
response  to  this  request  two  marvelously  hand- 
some creatures  appear,  exhibiting  the  splendor 
of  the  form  possessed  by  the  righteous  Christian 
dead.  A  second  vision,  apparently  granted  to 
Peter  only,  discloses  more  at  length  the  future 
state  first  of  the  righteous  and  then  of  the 
wicked.    The  abode  of  the  blessed  is 

a  very  great  country  outside  of  this  world,  exceeding 
bright  with  Hght  and  the  air  there  lighted  with  the 
rays  of  the  sun  and  the  earth  itself  blooming  with 
unfading  flowers  and  full  of  spices  and  plants,  fair 
flowering  and  incorruptible  and  bearing  blessed  fruit. 
And  so  great  was  the  perfume  that  it  was  borne  thence 
even  unto  us.  And  the  dwellers  in  that  place  were 
clad  in  the  raiment  of  shming  angels,  and  their  raiment 
was  like  unto  their  country,  and  angels  hovered  about 
them  there.  And  the  glory  of  the  dwellers  there  was 
equal,  and  with  one  voice  they  sang  praises  alternately 
to  the  Lord  God,  rejoicing  in  that  place. 

The  tortures  of  the  wicked  stand  in  sharp 
contrast  to  the  joys  of  the  righteous.  Various 
forms  of  punishment  are  described,  each  being 
so  devised  as  to  fit  specific  offenses  of  different 
sinners.  Those  who  have  blasphemed  the  way 
of  righteousness  are  seen  hanging  by  their 
tongues,  while  the  fires  of  torment  burn  be- 


neath them.  Some  sinners  are  cast  into  a  lake 
of  flaming  mire,  while  others  receive  their 
punishment  suspended  above  the  flames  by  the 
hair  or  by  the  feet.  Murderers  and  their  accom- 
plices were  consigned  to  a  narrow  place  full  of 
snakes  by  which  they  were  continually  smitten, 
while  the  souls  of  those  who  had  been  murdered 
gazed  upon  the  scene  with  satisfaction.  Perse- 
cutors of  the  Christians  were  punished  with 
especial  severity,  their  tortures  varying  with 
the  part  each  had  taken  in  the  persecutions. 
Those  who  previously  had  trusted  in  earthly 
riches  now  wore  tattered  and  filthy  raiment  and 
were  forced  to  roll  on  sharp,  red-hot  pebbles. 
Special  forms  of  torture  were  imposed,  upon 
usurers,  image-makers,  idolaters,  and  apostates. 
At  this  point  the  fragment  breaks  off,  but  its 
content  is  sufficiently  extensive  to  show  that 
Christians  in  the  generation  succeeding  John 
continued  to  use  apocalyptic  as  a  means  of 
instruction  and  encouragement.  To  be  sure, 
the  author  of  the  Petrine  apocalypse  was  inter- 
ested in  a  very  different  set  of  problems  from 
those  which  John  sought  to  solve,  but  both 
alike  resorted  to  a  divine  revelation  as  a  means 
of  conveying  to  their  respective  readers  the 
particular  message  which  the  occasion  seemed 


123 


The  Revelation  of  John 


to  demand.  The  issue  of  supreme  importance 
for  John  was  the  rising  conflict  between  the 
imperial  cult  and  Christianity  as  a  new  religious 
movement,  while  the  author  of  the  Apocalypse 
of  Peter  was  concerned  more  particularly  with 
offering  individuals  a  picture  of  future  rewards 
and  punishments  that  would  stimulate  correct 
personal  religious  living. 

Hermas  also  writes  primarily  in  the  interest 
of  personal  piety  among  Christians.  But 
instead  of  portraying  at  length  the  rewards  of 
the  righteous  and  the  punishments  of  the  wicked 
as  an  inducement  to  holy  living,  his  visions 
have  a  more  extensive  didactic  content.  The 
different  mediators  of  his  revelations  dehver 
comparatively  lengthy  addresses  of  instruction 
which  he  is  admonished  to  pass  on  to  his  fellow- 
Christians.  Typical  of  the  content  of  the  book 
is  the  message  of  the  woman  who  appears  to 
the  seer  in  the  opening  vision: 

They  that  entertain  evil  purposes  in  their  hearts 
bring  upon  themselves  death  and  captivity,  especially 
they  that  claim  for  themselves  this  present  world  and 
boast  in  its  riches  and  cleave  not  to  the  good  things 
that  are  to  come.  Their  souls  shall  rue  it,  seeing  that 
they  have  no  hope,  but  have  abandoned  themselves 
and  their  life.  But  do  thou  pray  unto  God  and  he 
shall  heal  thine  own  sins  and  those  of  thy  whole  house 
and  of  all  the  saints. 


Typical  Revelations 


123 


The  first  three  revelations  to  Hermas  are 
made  by  a  woman  symbolizing  the  church,  who 
admonishes  him  especially  to  correct  his  own 
sin  and  those  of  his  wife  and  children.  The 
third  vision  also  presents  a  long  description  of 
the  process  by  which  the  church  is  being  reared 
like  a  stone  tower,  the  different  stones  and  their 
allotment  symbolizing  the  status  of  different 
persons  in  relation  to  Christianity.  In  his 
fourth  vision  Hermas  finds  himself  confronted 
by  a  terrible  sea  monster,  whose  significance  is 
not  understood  until  the  heavenly  woman 
appears  once  more  with  an  interpretation, 
explaining  that  the  black  color  upon  the  beast's 
head  stands  for  the  present  world,  the  fiery 
color  for  impending  catastrophe,  the  golden 
color  for  the  Christians'  period  of  testing,  and 
the  white  color  for  the  new  age  to  come.  Since 
Hermas  sees  the  church  almost  completed 
he  anticipates  an  early  end  for  the  present 
world. 

The  second  main  division  of  this  apocalypse 
is  a  body  of  religious  instructions  mediated  by 
a  heavenly  apparition  in  the  garb  of  a  shepherd, 
who  communicates  divine  wisdom  to  Hermas. 
Of  his  own  part  in  the  composition  of  the  book 
the  author  says: 


124 


The  Revelation  of  John 


I  wrote  down  the  commandments  and  parables  as 
he  commanded  me.  If  then  when  ye  hear  them  ye 
keep  them  and  walk  in  them  and  do  them  with  a  pure 
heart,  ye  shall  receive  from  the  Lord  all  things  that  he 
promised  you.  But  if  when  ye  hear  them  ye  do  not 
repent  but  still  add  to  your  sins  ye  shall  receive  from 
the  Lord  the  opposite.  All  these  the  shepherd  the 
angel  of  repentance  commanded  me  to  write.* 

Then  follow,  as  in  the  earlier  portions  of  the 
work,  extended  admonitions  toward  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  various  Christian  virtues,  with 
particular  emphasis  upon  the  possibility  and 
the  desirability  of  repentance  on  the  part  of 
backsliders. 

The  foregoing  survey  of  apocalyptic  writings 
current  among  Jews,  Gentiles,  and  Christians 
provides  the  appropriate  and  necessary  setting 
for  further  study  of  the  Revelation  of  John. 
Readers  of  that  day  would  be  amply  prepared 
to  appreciate  a  new  document  of  this  familiar 
type.  It  would  undoubtedly  appeal  to  the 
Christians  of  Asia  as  not  only  thoroughly  intel- 
ligible but  also  both  interesting  and  profitable. 
John's  book  has  often  been  gravely  misunder- 
stood by  subsequent  generations  of  readers, 
because  of  their  failure  to  catch  the  spirit  of 
those  ancient  times  when  apocalyptic  writings 
were  a  familiar  means  of  religious  instruction. 

»Fm.  s:6f. 


CHAPTER  III 


THE  MAKING  OF  A  REVELATION 

How  were  books  of  revelation  produced? 
The  peculiar  characteristics  of  apocalypses  as 
a  distinct  type  of  religious  literature  will  be- 
come more  clear  on  further  examination  of 
certain  outstanding  genetic  factors  that  entered 
into  their  making.  As  a  rule  these  writings 
were  called  into  existence  by  similar  practical 
demands  for  a  special  interpretation  of  religion 
that  would  function  in  periods  of  peculiar 
distress.  They  dealt  in  whole  or  in  part  with 
a  common  stock  of  ideas,  and  the  same  typical 
literary  methods  were  employed  in  their  com- 
position. 

I.      FUNCTION  OF  APOCALYPTIC 

Generally  speaking,  an  apocalypse  is  the 
peculiar  product  of  a  time  of  adversity.  When 
mortals  find  themselves  overwhelmed  by  mis- 
fortunes or  plunged  in  perplexities,  escape 
from  despair  is  sought  in  a  special  disclosure 
of  God's  kindly  designs  for  the  future.  The 
seer  sets  before  the  eyes  of  his  afflicted  readers 

1 25 


126 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


127 


.1! 

I;     •( 


a  picture  of  coming  victory  as  the  reward  of 
present  endurance.  It  is  assumed  that  man, 
through  his  own  efforts,  is  quite  incapable 
either  of  averting  present  misfortune  or  of 
insuring  for  himself  a  happy  future.  In  fact 
while  awaiting  the  hour  of  his  deliverance  he 
may  anticipate  only  an  aggravation  of  his  dis- 
tresses. /Yet  in  the  moment  of  direst  agony 
the  light  of  apocalyptic  hope  burns  brightest. 
Under  more  ordinary  circumstances,  when  the 
course  of  daily  living  and  thinking  moves 
smoothly  forward  upon  its  accustomed  way, 
interest  in  apocalyptic  tends  to  abate.  But 
periods  of  great  political,  social,  or  religious  up- 
heaval demand  the  services  of  the  apocalyptic 
seer  who  can  reinforce  the  faltering  faith  of  the 
afflicted  by  disclosing  the  hidden  purposes  of 
the  Deity,  and  by  picturing  a  coming  time  when 
the  righteous  will  enjoy  unfailing  rewards  while 
sinners  suffer  relentless  punishments. 

It  was  especially  true  of  Jewish  apocalypses 
that  they  were  designed  to  counteract  or  inter- 
pret critical  experiences  through  which  readers 
were  passing  at  the  time  these  books  were 
composed.  As  has  already  been  observed, 
the  Book  of  Daniel  was  published  to  encourage 
patient  endurance  on  the  part  of  pious  Jews 


during  the  persecutions  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes. 
The  group  of  writings  connected  with  the  name 
of  Enoch  was  called  forth  by  the  unhappy 
experiences  of  the  righteous  during  the  turbu- 
lent period  of  Maccabean  times.  And  for  the 
most  part  all  subsequent  Jewish  apocalypses 
were  inspired  by  Roman  oppression. 

In  their  own  way  gentile  apocalypses 
served  a  similarly  practical  end.  Among  Gen- 
tiles the  stress  of  outward  circumstances  was 
usually  far  less  acute  than  in  the  case  of  the 
Jews.  But  nevertheless  the  function  of  the 
gentile  seer  was  that  of  mediating  superhuman 
wisdom  to  inquirers  in  moments  of  extremity. 
In  times  of  distress  or  doubt  the  ancient  pagan 
drew  upon  revelation  for  assurances  of  future 
safety,  whether  the  particular  need  was  indi- 
vidual or  national.  The  various  Sibyls  were 
famous  for  their  supposed  ability  to  reveal  the 
fates.  Even  after  the  different  Sibylline  shrines 
fell  into  decay  the  Roman  Senate  continued  to 
seek  guidance  from  the  Sibylline  oracles  in 
times  of  national  danger.  The  revelations 
made  to  Scipio  in  his  dream  or  to  Aeneas  in 
his  vision  of  Hades  are  evidently  designed 
primarily  to  encourage  the  immediate  cultiva- 
tion of  national  well-being.    On  the  other  hand 


It! 


128 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


129 


the  practical  function  of  other  apocalypses, 
such  as  the  revelations  to  Er  or  those  to 
Thespesius,  is  more  distinctly  to  stimulate  by 
warnings  of  punishment  or  promises  of  reward 
a  worthy  type  of  life  for  individuals  while  still 
upon  earth. 

Among  the  earliest  Christians,  as  among 
their  Jewish  predecessors  and  contemporaries, 
apocalyptic  hopes  throve  on  adversity  of  cir- 
cumstances. Prominent  in  the  message  of  the 
first  Christian  preachers  was  the  expectation 
of  Jesus'  return  in  messianic  glory  at  an  early 
date  to  establish  his  dominion  upon  a  thor- 
oughly renovated  earth.  This  confidence  in  an 
imminent  divine  intervention  to  right  the  ills 
of  life  enabled  Christians  to  endure  without 
faltering  both  the  opposition  of  their  Jewish 
kinsmen  and  the  hostility  of  their  gentile 
enemies.  While  Christians  remained  relatively 
few  in  numbers  and  the  prospect  for  a  universal 
triumph  of  the  new  religion  by  ordinary  means 
of  missionary  propaganda  seemed  doubtful, 
faith  in  the  ultimate  victory  of  God  drew  its 
inspiration  largely  from  apocalyptic  imagery. 
Thus  Paul  amid  the  adversities  of  his  labors 
found  satisfaction  and  courage  in  believing  that 
the  day  of  the  Lord  was  at  hand.    Similarly  the 


Christian  writers  who  composed  the  Synoptic 
Gospels  noted  with  satisfaction  the  current 
report  that  Jesus  himself  had  foretold  his 
early  return  in  apocalyptic  triumph  to  bring 
their  feeble  missionary  efforts  to  a  victorious 
conclusion.  And  when  the  Roman  imperial 
power  seemed  to  John  to  menace  the  very 
existence  of  the  new  religion,  apocalyptic 
expectations  again  came  to  the  rescue,  serving 
the  Christians  as  a  means  of  expressing  their 
unconquerable  faith  in  the  ultimate  triumph 
of  their  cause. 

As  Christianity  expanded  both  numerically 
and  territorially,  the  demand  for  apocalyp- 
tic writings  gradually  diminished.  The  odds 
against  the  new  religion  no  longer  seemed  so 
stupendous  as  to  demand  the  early  catastrophic 
intervention  of  God  to  secure  its  triumph  and 
rescue  it  from  destruction.  More  gradual  and 
normal  processes  of  growth  now  seemed  to  offer 
sufficient  promises  of  success  to  satisfy  immedi- 
ate needs.  Nevertheless  certain  individuals  or 
groups  within  Christianity  continued  to  cherish 
apocalyptic  fancies  as  a  source  of  help  in  times 
of  perplexity  and  as  a  means  of  heightening 
confidence  in  the  ultimate  victory  of  Christian 
strivings.     Impelled  by  a  desire  to  stimulate 


I30 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


131 


ilii 


loyal  attachment  to  the  new  religion,  the  author 
of  the  Apocalypse  of  Peter  held  before  the  eyes 
of  his  readers  a  vivid  apocalyptic  picture  of 
future  rewards  and  punishments.  Hermas 
sought  a  similarly  supernatural  authority  for 
emphasizing  the  necessity  of  holy  living.  But 
after  the  middle  of  the  second  century  Chris- 
tians rapidly  lost  interest  in  apocalyptic. 

As  a  rule  apocalypses  were  written  to  func- 
tion in  crises;  they  were  essentially  tracts  for 
the  times.  The  recognition  of  this  fact  is 
fundamental  for  their  correct  interpretation. 
Primarily  they  were  not  products  of  purely 
literary  interest.  They  were  not  called  forth 
simply  by  a  desire  for  literary  expression,  such 
as  might  prompt  the  writing  of  a  modern 
religious  fiction.  To  be  sure  they  are  not 
devoid  of  literary  art,'  and  they  often  give 
free  play  to  the  religious  imagination,  but  in 
most  cases  the  incentive  for  their  production 
is  the  stress  of  the  times  rather  than  any  merely 
spontaneous  literary  impulse.  They  are  writ- 
ten to  offset  specific  distresses  of  the  moment, 
and  their  meaning  for  the  author  and  his  con- 
temporaries will  become  clear  only  as  an 
apocalypse  is  read  strictly  in  the  light  of  the 

'  See  below,  pp.  148  ff . 


original  function  which  it  was  designed  to 
serve.  This  is  the  first  law  to  be  observed  in 
the  study  of  all  apocalyptic  writings. 

n.      CHARACTERISTIC  APOCALYPTIC  IDEAS 

Although  most  ancient  apocalypses  were 
called  into  being  by  specific  historical  crises, 
nevertheless  the  thinking  of  their  authors  moves 
within  a  relatively  narrow  circle  of  ideas  which 
they  share  largely  in  common.  Since  they  were 
not  vigorous  Uterary  creators,  they  usually 
made  little  if  any  effort  at  originaUty  either  in 
thinking  or  in  expression.  At  various  times 
according  to  their  several  needs  they  chose  one 
or  another  item  from  the  common  stock  of 
apocalyptic  ideas,  reinterpreting  them  to  meet 
the  peculiar  exigencies  of  the  occasion.  While 
individual  apocalyptists  sometimes  exhibited 
remarkably  vivid  powers  of  imagination,  there 
is  among  all  of  them  a  striking  similarity  in 
their  fundamental  notions. 

A  belief  in  the  peculiar  inspiration  of  the 
seer  as  a  necessary  medium  of  revelation  is  a 
characteristic  of  all  apocalyptic.  He  is  thought 
to  be  an  especially  selected  individual  to  whom 
divine  secrets  have  been  divulged  and  whose 
word  is  therefore  unquestionably  authoritative. 


132 


The  Revelation  of  John 


iiji 


The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


133 


It  IS  also  uniformly  assumed  that  his  infor- 
mation has  been  derived  from  deity  in  some 
unusual  but  peculiarly  significant  manner. 
Whether  he  is  the  Hebrew  Daniel,  the  Greek 
Odysseus,  or  the  Christian  John,  the  experience 
of  this  favored  individual  is  uniformly  relegated 
to  the  divine  sphere. 

Roughly  speaking,  the  content  of  the  seer's 
vision  is  either  individualistic  or  cosmic  in  its 
emphasis.  That  is,  some  apocalyptists  are 
chiefly  concerned  with  disclosing  future  rewards 
and  punishments  for  individuals,  while  others 
are  more  interested  in  the  ultimate  outcome  of 
world-history.  The  older  types  of  Jewish 
apocalypse  are  strikingly  lacking  in  individual- 
istic items,  while  the  gentile  apocalypses  on  the 
other  hand  are  almost  completely  devoid  of  all 
cosmic  speculations.  But  late  Jewish  and  early 
Christian  revelations  contain  both  features, 
although  interest  in  portraying  the  individual's 
future  destiny  is  usually  quite  secondary  to  the 
seer's  larger  program  for  the  consummation  of 
world-history. 

Acquaintance  with  the  philosophy  of  history 
which  characterizes  Jewish  apocalyptic  writings 
is  of  especial  value  to  the  student  of  the  Book 
of  Revelation.    This  scheme  of  thinking  as- 


sumes the  existence  of  two  worlds  in  deadly 
conflict  with  one  another.  Each  of  these  worlds 
is  believed  to  be  under  the  control  of  a  powerful 
superhuman  ruler.  Satan  is  supreme  in  the 
realm  of  evil,  while  God  reigns  in  the  kingdom 
of  righteousness.  Satan's  chief  seat  is  in  the 
lower  regions,  but  he  has  extended  his  activities 
to  cover  the  earth  and  the  air  above  the  earth. 
The  demons  are  his  numerous  assistants,  who 
are  ever  on  the  alert  to  bring  men  under  their 
control.  God,  on  the  other  hand,  dwells  above 
the  bell-shaped  vault  of  the  heavens,  where  he 
is  surrounded  by  hosts  of  angels.  These 
heavenly  beings  are  his  ministers,  performing 
his  will  in  the  heavens  and  on  occasion  serving 
as  his  messengers  of  good-will  to  men.  When 
the  heavens  are  pictured  as  compartments  laid 
one  upon  another  several  stories  high,  God's 
throne  is  placed  in  the  highest  heaven. 

An  apocalyptic  writer  commonly  regards 
the  ills  of  life  as  directly  due  to  Satan  and  his 
demonic  attendants,  to  whom  God  permits  a 
temporary  supremacy  upon  earth.  Earthly 
kings  and  princes  and  particularly  those  rulers 
who  persecute  the  righteous  are  unique  embodi- 
ments of  Satanic  power.  Idol-worship  and  all 
the  culture  of  heathendom,  which  threaten  to 


134 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


135 


overwhelm  the  people  of  God,  are  works  of 
Satan.  With  the  passing  of  the  years  the 
powers  of  darkness  grow  bolder  and  more 
efficient,  thereby  multiplying  wickedness  and 
making  more  unfortunate  the  lot  of  mankind. 
While  Satan  and  his  hosts  are  permitted  to 
exercise  their  devices  among  mortals,  there  is  no 
prospect  of  diminution  in  the  misfortunes  to 
which  flesh  is  heir.  In  fact  these  distresses 
may  be  expected  to  increase  in  number  and 
intensity  as  time  progresses,  since  with  practice 
Satan  grows  more  and  more  accomplished  in 
the  execution  of  his  fiendish  designs. 

Man  single-handed  carries  on  an  unequal 
struggle  against  the  powers  of  the  lower  world. 
His  hope  of  victory  does  not  lie  in  any  ability 
of  his  own  to  thwart  the  activities  of  the  evil 
one.  The  righteous  man  may  so  order  his  own 
life  that  Satan  will  have  no  control  over  his 
personal  conduct,  but  the  world  about  him  is 
still  dominated  by  demonic  powers  which  man 
by  all  his  efforts  is  incapable  of  banishing  from 
the  earth.  Satan's  defeat  can  be  accomplished 
only  by  the  special  intervention  of  God.  It  is 
the  task  of  the  apocalyptic  seer  to  discover 
assurances  of  God's  intention  of  interfering  at 
an  early  date  to  destroy  the  present  demon- 


ridden  world  and  effect  a  complete  deliverance 
of  the  righteous  from  all  their  ills. 

As  pictured  in  the  apocalyptist's  program, 
God's  method  of  accomplishing  the  redemption 
of  his  people  is  to  be  catastrophic.  Suddenly 
he  wiU  descend  in  person  from  his  dwelling- 
place  in  the  heavens  or  will  send  an  angelic 
representative  to  execute  judgment  upon  sin- 
ners. The  earth  is  to  be  purged  of  all  wicked- 
ness, including  all  princes  and  potentates. 
Satan's  power  upon  earth  is  to  be  completely 
abolished.  Some  apocalyptists  insert  at  this 
point  a  temporary  residence  of  the  heavenly 
Messiah  with  the  saints  upon  the  purified 
earth,  after  which  the  forces  of  evil  break  loose 
once  more.  But  the  last  Satanic  effort  at 
self-assertion  is  to  prove  a  complete  failure. 
The  heavenly  powers  will  quickly  and  effectively 
accomplish  an  ultimate  and  glorious  victory. 

The  final  scene  in  this  course  of  events  is  to 
be  the  allotment  of  rewards  and  punishments. 
The  chosen  people  of  God  are  to  be  gathered 
from  all  quarters  of  the  earth  into  the  new 
Jerusalem  where  Jehovah  is  to  make  his  abode 
with  them.  There  is  to  be  a  general  resurrec- 
tion of  the  dead,  or  at  least  of  the  righteous,  who 
are  to  be  rewarded  by  admission  to  citizenship 


136 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


137 


li! 


il 


in  the  new  Jerusalem.  Earth  and  heaven 
undergo  a  process  of  complete  renewal,  all  evil 
being  forever  abolished  from  the  world.  Sin- 
ners on  the  other  hand  are  consigned  to  a  place 
of  punishment  from  which  they,  together  with 
Satan  and  the  demons,  shall  never  find  release. 

The  distinctiveness  of  apocalj^tic  may  be 
further  illustrated  by  comparison  with  ancient 
Hebrew  prophecy.  It  is  true  that  apoca- 
lyptic features  are  present  in  certain  of  the 
prophets,  yet  prophecy  and  apocalyptic  show 
some  fundamental  contrasts.  When  the  older 
prophets  spoke  of  a  coming  catastrophe  to  be 
brought  upon  the  world  by  Jehovah,  they 
regarded  the  event  as  a  punishment  rather  than 
a  redemption  for  Israel.  Sin  and  evil  in  the 
world  were  of  man's  making;  therefore  he  must 
mend  his  ways  in  order  to  avert  divine  wrath. 
The  prophet  delivered  a  call  to  repentance  and 
reform  on  the  assumption  that  the  world  was 
capable  of  renovation  through  the  moral 
regeneration  of  men  if  they  would  but  heed  the 
admonitions  of  the  preacher  and  order  their 
lives  according  to  his  teaching. 

For  the  apocalyptist,  on  the  contrary,  the 
present  world  is  incapable  of  reformation,  since 
Satan  is  temporarily  in  control  of  its  afifairs. 


Evil  is  not  of  man's  making,  nor  is  its  complete 
removal  within  his  power.  World-renovation 
is  purely  God's  affair,  and  man's  duty  is  to 
await  patiently  the  hour  for  divine  interven- 
tion. Yet  one  must  not  assume  that  the 
apocalyptist  has  no  interest  in  the  moral 
attainments  of  his  readers.  Indeed  he  is 
often  if  not  usually  quite  as  sensitive  to  moral 
excellence  as  is  the  prophet.  But  he  interprets 
the  object  of  ethical  striving  in  a  different  way. 
With  him  it  is  primarily  a  personal  preparation 
for  participation  in  the  privileges  of  a  new  age, 
or  is  a  means  of  inducing  God  to  act  on  behalf 
of  the  righteous,  but  is  not  an  integral  factor  in 
social  reform.  The  apocalyptic  preacher  might 
call  men  to  repentance  with  aU  the  zeal  of  an 
Isaiah,  but  the  object  of  repentance  was  prep- 
aration for  the  imminent  catastrophic  coming 
of  God,  and  not  reformation  of  the  existing 
social  order  as  a  means  of  averting  the  day  of 
wrath. 

The  prophet  and  the  apocalyptist  each 
spoke  under  divine  guidance,  but  in  this  respect 
also  they  exhibit  certain  noteworthy  contrasts. 
While  the  prophet  may  be  capable  of  ecstasy 
and  visions,  these  are  not  his  peculiar  equip- 
ment.   His    distinctive    authority    emanates 


M 


138 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


139 


III 


iiij'^ 


ill!! 


liiH 


from  an  inner  conviction  that  the  word  of  God 
has  entered  into  his  soul.  He  bears,  as  it  were, 
the  authority  of  his  message  within  himself, 
and  so  regards  his  normal  utterance  as  the 
expression  of  the  divine  will.  The  apocalyptist 
on  the  other  hand  is  distinctly  a  seer  who 
communicates  to  his  contemporaries  not  so 
much  the  word  of  God  as  the  vision  of  God. 
Heavenly  wisdom  comes  to  him,  not  as  a 
rational  religious  conviction,  but  in  a  moment 
of  ecstatic  frenzy  when  wonderful  pictures  or 
strange  sounds  impress  themselves  upon  his 
abnormally  agitated  senses.  His  message  is 
authenticated  from  without,  being  guaranteed 
by  his  unique  experience  rather  than  by  the 
strength  of  his  personal  spiritual  convictions. 

In  the  course  of  Jewish  history  prophecy 
and  apocalyptic  had  gradually  merged  in  the 
message  of  various  preachers  of  reform.  The 
stress  of  Syrian  and  Roman  oppression  tended 
constantly  to  increase  the  stimulus  toward 
distinctly  apocalyptic  ways  of  thinking.  It  is 
not  surprising  to  find  early  Christians  embra- 
cing these  ideas  with  avidity  and  using  them 
freely  as  the  solution  for  their  own  problems, 
particularly  under  such  circumstances  as  those 
with   which   the   author   of   Revelation   was 


confronted.  The  outstanding  features  of  the 
apocalyptic  program  had  become  well  fixed  by 
custom  before  he  undertook  the  task  of  writing 
a  new  Christian  revelation.  He  moved  in  the 
same  general  circle  of  ideas  as  did  his  pred- 
ecessors. In  standard  apocalyptic  fashion 
his  message  was  authenticated  from  without 
by  marvelous  visions.  He  also  viewed  the 
history  of  the  present  world  in  terms  of  a 
mighty  conflict  between  Satanic  and  heavenly 
powers.  Earthly  rulers  were  represented  as 
Satan's  especial  agents  for  afflicting  the  right- 
eous, whose  tortures  were  to  increase  until  the 
moment  for  divine  action  arrived.  Then  the 
present  world  would  perish,  making  way  for  a 
new  regime  of  righteousness.  While  John  intro- 
duced many  original  features  into  his  book  he 
still  followed  the  main  lines  of  apocalyptic  think- 
ing that  had  already  been  mapped  out  by  writers 
of  revelations  in  previous  generations. 

in.      EQUIPMENT  OF  THE   SEER 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  revelations 
were  composed  in  accordance  with  well- 
established  models,  it  was  not  thought  possible 
for  an  ordinary  individual  to  produce  one  of 
these  books.    Since  an  apocalypse  was  regarded 


I40 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


141 


m 


as  a  disclosure  of  God's  secret  purposes  in  history, 
the  author  was  supposed  to  need  a  special  equip- 
ment for  his  task.  He  alone  could  write  who  had 
been  divinely  instructed  in  heavenly  wisdom. 

\  Dreams  were  the  most  common  means  by 
which  this  supernatural  wisdom  was  mediated 
to  the  older  apocalyptic  writers.  In  a  dream 
the  Babylonian  king  Nebuchadnezzar  received 
a  communication  from  the  other  world,  the 
interpretation  of  which  he  demanded  in  vain 
from  his  wise  men.  But  when  Daniel  and  his 
companions  sought  aid  from  their  God,  "then 
was  the  secret  revealed  unto  Daniel  in  a  vision 
of  the  night."  On  another  occasion  Daniel 
had  a  dream  and  "visions  of  his  head  upon  his 
bed,"  after  which  he  wrote  out  the  story  of 
what  he  had  seen  in  the  vision  that  had  been 
shown  him  in  his  dream.  He  describjes  in  very 
realistic  fashion  the  emotions  which  stirred 
within  him  as  he  experienced  these  visions: 
"  My  spirit  was  grieved  in  the  midst  of  my  body, 
and  the  visions  of  my  head  troubled  me.  I 
came  near  imto  one  of  them  that  stood  by,  and 
asked  him  the  truth  concerning  all  of  this. 
So  he  told  me  and  made  me  know  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  things.  "* 

»Dan.  7 list 


Enoch  tells  of  a  dream  he  had  when  a  boy 
sleeping  at  the  home  of  his  grandfather.  He 
saw  the  vault  of  heaven  collapse  and  fall  to  the 
earth,  while  the  earth  itself  was  swallowed  up 
in  a  great  abyss.  The  sight  so  terrified  the 
youth  that  he  cried  aloud  in  his  sleep,  "The 
earth  is  destroyed."  On  being  awakened  by 
his  grandfather  he  recounted  the  dream,  and 
they  both  agreed  that  it  was  a  divine  dis- 
closure of  events  presently  to  overtake  the 
world.  Some  of  the  most  striking  revelations 
of  the  Enoch  apocalypse  were  communicated 
to  the  seer  in  a  dream. 

In  "a  vision  of  the  night"  Baruch  has  a 
dream,  which  God  subsequently  interprets  to 
him  as  meaning  that  the  Roman  Empire  is 
presently  to  be  supplanted  by  the  new  mes- 
sianic kingdom  from  heaven.  In  still  another 
dream  Baruch  sees  an  unusual  electric  storm 
which  awakens  him  in  terror  from  his  sleep. 
After  praying  God  for  an  interpretation  the 
angel  Ramiel,  "who  presides  over  true  visions, " 
appears  to  the  seer  and  explains  that  the  storm 
symboUzes  the  history  of  the  world  from  Adam 
to  the  advent  of  the  Messiah.  Ezra's  faith  in 
the  coming  Messiah  was  also  derived  from 
dreams.    First  he  saw  a  terrible  eagle,  typifying 


142 


The  Revelation  of  John 


• 

The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


143 


:iiil!l 


m 


the  Roman  Empire,  arise  out  of  the  sea,  and 
later,  in  another  dream,  he  beheld  the  Messiah 
himself  come  riding  upon  the  clouds  to  triumph 
over  Rome.  In  each  case  Ezra  was  sorely 
perplexed  until  God  explained  to  him  the 
meaning  of  the  dream. 

In  all  of  these  descriptions  dreams  are 
assumed  to  be  a  miraculous  disclosure  of 
heavenly  wisdom.  The  ancients  knew  nothing 
of  our  modern  science  of  psychology  and  the 
doubt  it  casts  upon  those  vagrant  mental 
images  which  register  themselves  upon  the 
brain  during  the  hours  of  sleep.  The  dreamer 
of  olden  times  assumed  that  the  visions  beheld 
in  his  dreams  corresponded  to  the  actual 
reaUties  of  another  world  upon  which  man  was 
only  rarely  permitted  to  gaze.  The  sight  was 
so  unusual  that  it  frequently  needed  inter- 
pretation before  the  wisdom  it  revealed  could 
be  appropriated  by  mortals.  It  was  the 
business  of  the  efficient  seer  to  receive  and 
expound  these  revelations  for  his  less  fortunate 
and  less  skilful  contemporaries. 

A   closely  kindred   means  of  ascertaining 
divine  wisdom  is  furnished  by  visions  experi- 
enced during  waking  hours.     An  aptitude  for  ) 
this  type  of  psychic  activity  is  part  of  the 


equipment  of  many  apocalyptists,  although 
the  experience  is  by  no  means  peculiar  to  them. 
Their  visions  belong  in  essentially  the  same 
category  as  Isaiah's  vision  of  Jehovah  sitting 
upon  his  throne  or  EzekiePs  vision  of  God 
seen  through  the  open  door  in  the  heavens. 
But  in  the  case  of  an  apocalyptic  seer  equip- 
ment by  means  of  visions  is  more  fully  devel- 
oped. He  is  privileged  to  gaze  upon  picture 
after  picture,  which  sometimes  disclose  to  him 
the  whole  course  of  past  history  as  well  as  the 
outcome  of  God's  plans  for  the  future. 

These  visions  are  frequently  ecstatic  in 
character.  Superhuman  knowledge  comes  to 
the  seer  when  he  is  in  an  abnormally  agitated 
state  of  feeling.  This  phenomenoij,  corre- 
sponding with  the  modern  notion  of  trance, 
was  interpreted  by  the  ancients  as  a  superior 
state  of  mental  activity  induced  by  supernatural 
causes;  hence  the  importance  of  this  equip- 
ment for  the  apocalyptist.  Numerous  illustra- 
tions of  ecstatic  visions  could  be  adduced  from 
various  apocalyptic  writings.  Daniel  was  sub- 
ject to  great  agitation  of  spirit  and  on  one 
occasion,  after  three  weeks  of  meditation  and 
fasting,  was  visited  by  heavenly  messengers 
visible  to  himself  but  unseen  by  his  companions. 


M 


144 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


14s 


m 


liii 


i 


«l 


Daniel  was  quite  overcome  by  the  sight  of  these 
strange  visitors,  who  communicated  great 
wisdom  to  him  while  he  was  in  this  ecstatic 
condition.  After  a  period  of  seven  days  of 
fasting,  Baruch  heard  a  voice  speaking  from  the 
heights  instructing  him  to  stand  upon  his  feet 
and  hear  the  word  of  the  mighty  God.  On 
another  occasion  a  similar  period  of  fasting, 
meditation,  and  prayer  induced  an  exalted 
state  of  feeling  in  which  Baruch  saw  the 
heavens  opened  and  power  was  given  him  to 
hear  a  voice  from  on  high  speaking  words  of 
heavenly  wisdom.  Likewise  in  moments  of 
profound  agitation,  after  periods  of  fasting  and 
prayer,  Ezra  communed  with  the  Most  High 
and  attained  to  an  understanding  of  the 
mysteries  of  God.  Gentile  and  early  Christian 
apocalypses  also  exhibit  striking  instances  of 
trance  as  the  medium  of  the  seer's  inspiration. 
Still  another  feature  in  the  equipment  of 
the  apocalyptist  akin  to  ecstatic  vision  is  his 
alleged  ability  to  pay  temporary  visits  to 
distant  places,  even  to  heaven  or  hell,  where  he 
sees  and  hears  divine  information  to  be  revealed 
to  mortals.  Among  the  prophets  Ezekiel  had 
experienced  the  sensation  of  being  caught  up 
from  earth  and  transported  to  a  distant  place. 


As  he  describes  the  phenomenon,  the  Spirit  in 
the  form  of  a  hand  laid  hold  of  a  lock  of  his  hair, 
raised  him  into  the  upper  air,  and  brought  him 
in  the  visions  of  God  to  Jerusalem.  The 
apocalypses  contain  striking  descriptions  of 
such  experiences.  In  one  of  Daniel's  visions 
it  seemed  to  him  as  though  he  were  transported 
to  the  castle  of  Susa.  Enoch  was  once  borne 
to  heaven  on  the  clouds,  surrounded  by  a  mist 
as  he  sped  upward,  driven  by  the  wind,  through 
the  regions  of  the  stars  and  the  lightning. 
The  apocalypse  known  as  the  Secrets  of  Enoch 
especially  abounds  in  references  to  the  seer's 
journeyings  through  the  heavens.  In  the 
Apocalypse  of  Abraham  the  ascent  to  heaven 
is  made  on  the  wings  of  a  bird,  while  Baruch 
was  raised  aloft  by  a  "strong  spirit."  Visits 
of  exploration  to  the  abodes  of  the  blessed  or 
to  the  regions  of  torture  are  also  common  in 
gentile  imagery. 

Sometimes  an  apocalyptist  believed  him- 
seK  especially  equipped  by  God's  spirit  to 
disclose  revelations.  Daniel  was  repeatedly 
credited  by  his  contemporaries  with  possessing 
"the  spirit  of  the  holy  gods"  and  "an  excellent 
spirit  and  knowledge  and  understanding." 
Enoch  was  said  to  have  alleged:  "The  Spirit 


146 


The  Revelation  of  John 


is  poured  out  upon  me,  that  I  may  show  you 
everything  that  shall  befall  you  forever." 
But  inner  spiritual  guidance  did  not  play  a 
prominent  role  in  the  work  of  the  seer;  his 
activities  were  more  emotional  and  picturesque. 
While  the  Spirit  might  be  a  means  of  inducing 
dreams  or  ecstatic  visions,  the  seer's  chief 
source  of  information  was  the  more  concrete  and 
objective  words  or  images  communicated  to 
him  during  his  visions.  The  inspiration  of  the 
Sibylline  prophetess  is  a  striking  illustration  of 
a  similar  phenomenon  among  the  Gentiles. 

Friendship  with  the  angels  was  a  particu- 
larly important  item  in  the  qualifications  of 
the  Jewish  authors  of  revelations.  At  different 
times  Daniel  availed  himself  of  their  assistance. 
In  Enoch  hosts  of  angels  are  almost  constantly 
moving  about  on  the  stage,  while  certain  of 
their  number  serve  as  guides  and  interpreters 
for  the  seer.  The  book  opens  with  Enoch's 
declaration  that  from  angels  *'I  heard  every- 
thing and  from  them  I  understood  as  I  saw. " 
In  fact  many  apocalyptists  are  similarly  assisted 
by  these  ministering  spirits  of  heaven. 

Convinced  of  his  supernatural  equipment, 
an  apocalyptic  author  usually  makes  superior 
claims  for  the  content  of.  his  book.    He  has 


The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


147 


acquired  his  knowledge  by  means  of  dreams, 
ecstatic  visions,  visits  to  heaven,  and  angelic 
instruction,  all  of  which  seem  to  him  real 
objective  occurrences  and  in  no  sense  sub- 
jective psychic  phenomena  in  the  modern  sense 
of  that  term.  Under  these  circumstances  it  is 
not  surprising  to  find  Enoch  affirming  that 
"till  the  present  day  such  wisdom  has  never 
been  given  by  the  Lord  of  Spirits  as  I  have 
received  according  to  my  insight,  according  to 
the  good  pleasure  of  the  Lord  of  Spirits." 
A  similar  assurance  of  finality  pervades  all 
the  apocalypses,  whether  Jewish,  gentile,  or 
Christian. 

The  author  of  the  New  Testament  Revela- 
tion represented  himself  as  falling  no  whit  behind 
his  apocalyptic  predecessors  and  contempora- 
ries in  his  consciousness  of  unique  equipment 
for  his  task.  He  did  not  rely  upon  dreams  as 
the  source  of  heavenly  wisdom,  but  ecstatic 
visions  amply  supplied  all  his  needs.  When 
"in  the  Spirit"  he  found  himself  enjoying  that 
elevated  state  of  feeling  which  enabled  him  to 
hear  wonderful  voices  from  above  and  see 
marvelous  sights  in  heaven.  God,  Christ,  and 
the  angels  were  all  open  to  his  gaze  as  he  received 
a  full  disclosure  of  heavenly  wisdom.    In  this 


148 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


149 


I 


confidence  he  informed  his  readers  that  his  book 
was  "a  revelation  from  Jesus  Christ  which  God 
gave  to  him  in  order  to  disclose  to  his  servants 
what  must  speedily  come  to  pass. "  So  far  as 
his  equipment  was  concerned,  in  all  essential 
respects  John  regarded  himself  as  standing  in 
the  true  line  of  apocalyptic  succession. 

IV.      LITERARY  METHOD   OF  APOCALYPTIC 

The  literary  processes  employed  in  the 
actual  composition  of  different  revelations 
varied  with  circumstances.  Possibly  the  sim- 
plest form  of  the  process  was  a  literal  repro- 
duction of  the  dream  or  vision  as  recalled  by 
the  seer  on  recovering  his  normal  state  of  mind. 
In  some  instances  the  actual  writing  may  have 
been  performed  while  the  author  was  still 
dominated  by  his  ecstatic  feeling.  At  first 
these  spontaneous  methods  of  composition  may 
have  sufficed,  but  at  a  relatively  early  date 
apocalyptic  writings  assumed  a  much  more 
complicated  and  artificial  Hterary  form. 

It  is  often  difl&cult  to  determine  whether 
the  dreams  and  visions  described  in  certain 
apocalyptic  writings  are  records  of  actual 
experience  or  whether  they  are  merely  the 
creations  of  a  literary  imagination.    No  one 


supposes  that  Dante  and  Milton  had  actual 
visions  of  the  scenes  they  depict  so  vividly, 
or  that  Bunyan  ever  believed  his  pilgrim  to 
be  anything  but  a  creation  of  his  own  literary 
skill.  Are  the  scenes  described  in  the  apoca- 
lypses a  similarly  imaginative  product  of  the 
writer's  art,  designed  to  convey  entertainment 
and  instruction,  but  never  intended  by  him  as 
descriptions  of  actual  happenings?  In  their 
present  form  the  apocalyptic  books  betray 
varying  degrees  of  literary  skill  in  their  com- 
position, and  possibly  the  dream  or  vision 
therein  described  may  often  be  a  creation  of 
the  author's  pen  rather  than  a  reproduction 
of  his  personal  experience. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  close  inspection  of 
apocalyptic  writings  forbids  the  supposition 
that  their  authors  commonly  regarded  them- 
selves as  composing  a  mere  hterary  fiction. 
For  the  most  part  they  were  highly  emotional 
men  who  lived  in  the  midst  of  stirring  events 
and  belonged  to  an  age  which  did  not  question 
the  objective  reality  of  dreams  and  ecstatic 
visions.  For  the  writer  of  Daniel  the  advent 
of  the  Kingdom  of  God  to  displace  the  Syrian 
rule  was  to  be  as  Hterally  real  as  were  the 
persecutions    of   Antiochus    Epiphanes.    And 


ISO 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


151 


m 


just  as  God  himself  was  supposed  to  be  able  at 
the  present  moment  to  see  clearly  the  whole 
course  of  future  history,  so  a  seer  under  divine 
instruction  presumably  could  attain,  and  often 
did  attain  in  his  own  opinion,  a  literal  vision  of 
these  coming  events.  In  the  primitive  stages 
of  their  history  apocalyptic  expectations  un- 
doubtedly drew  their  inspiration  very  largely 
from  the  realm  of  actual  dreams  and  ecstasies. 

With  the  development  of  interest  in  apoca- 
lyptic writings  and  the  growing  demand  for 
books  of  this  type,  the  literary  method  employed 
in  their  composition  inevitably  became  more 
artificial.  A  revelation  no  longer  consisted  in 
the  simple  rehearsal  of  a  seer's  experiences. 
It  became  an  elaborate  document  composed 
by  a  literary  artist,  who  himself  might  be  some- 
what familiar  with  dreams  or  visions,  but  who 
deliberately  rearranged,  expounded,  interpre- 
ted, and  wove  into  a  unified  whole  data 
from  his  own  experience,  creations  of  his  own 
Uterary  imagination,  and  materials  from  eariier 
apocalyptic  documents  or  oral  traditions. 

Few  if  any  of  the  extant  Jewish  apocalypses 
are  entirely  new  compositions,  giving  at  first 
hand  the  work  of  a  single  author.  On  the 
contrary,  many  of  these  documents  are  com- 


posed  of  earher  and  briefer  apocalypses  to 
which  a  subsequent  writer  has  added  later 
materials  of  his  own  creation,  blending  together 
these  complex  elements  as  best  he  could  into  a 
more  or  less  perfectly  unified  whole.  Undoubt- 
edly these  earlier  revelations  which  he  read 
until  they  indelibly  impressed  themselves  upon 
his  mind  had  much  to  do  with  stimulating  his 
own  imagination  and  begetting  those  ecstatic 
emotions  which  inspired  his  own  fresh  efforts 
at  apocalyptic  composition.  It  would,  how- 
ever, be  a  mistake  to  assume  that  the  growth 
of  literary  inventiveness  lessened  the  serious- 
ness of  the  apocalyptist's  purpose  or  weakened 
his  confidence  in  the  ultimate  triumph  of 
righteousness  depicted  in  his  book.  He  wrote 
under  the  firm  conviction  that  he  was  correctly 
interpreting  the  intentions  of  the  Almighty. 

A  characteristic  literary  device  for  emphasiz- 
ing the  authority  and  validity  of  a  revelation 
is  the  custom  of  ascribing  it  to  some  ancient 
worthy.  Jewish  apocalypses  were  commonly 
of  this  pseudonymous  character.  The  un- 
known author  of  the  so-called  Book  of  Daniel, 
living  in  the  days  of  the  Syrian  persecution, 
about  167  B.C.,  composed  his  book  to  represent 
the  experiences  of  Daniel,  who  was  assumed  to 


,:'■> 


152 


The  Revelation  of  John 


have  lived  some  four  hundred  years  earlier  in 
the  time  of  the  Babylonian  exile.  Similarly, 
different  apocalyptic  writers  in  the  second  and 
first  centuries  B.C.  put  forth  their  revelations 
as  dreams  and  visions  of  the  patriarch  Enoch. 
Moses  and  Abraham  were  likewise  honored 
with  the  authorship  of  books  which  were  not 
written  before  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
Era.  After  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  in  70  a.d. 
apocalypses  were  published  under  the  names 
of  Baruch  and  Ezra,  who  had  lived  centuries 
before  these  books  were  composed. 

At  first  glance  this  habit  of  issuing  a  book 
under  an  assumed  name  may  seem  to  be  a 
most  deceptive  and  reprehensible  practice. 
But  we  must  remember  that  the  literary 
ethics  of  two  thousand  years  ago  was  very 
different  from  that  of  today.  The  seer  was 
not  uttering  his  own  message  but  the  message 
of  God,  a  direct  revelation  from  heaven,  and 
it  seemed  to  him  to  be  his  primary  duty  to 
deliver  this  message  in  the  form  that  would  be 
most  effective  for  his  readers.  This  end  could 
be  best  accomplished,  so  he  usually  assumed, 
by  putting  forth  his  book  in  the  name  of  some 
ancient  worthy  like  Daniel,  Enoch,  Moses, 
Abraham,  Baruch,  or  Ezra.    This  pious  de- 


The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


153 


ception  was  perpetrated  in  all  good  conscience, 
not  so  much  with  the  intention  of  deceiving 
the  readers  as  with  the  purpose  of  providing 
fitting  credentials  for  a  new  divine  communi- 
cation. 

Before  the  chief  Jewish  apocalypses  had 
been  composed  the  idea  of  a  sacred  canon  of 
Hebrew  scriptures  had  already  come  into 
existence.  Hence  a  seer  who  wrote  in  his  own 
name  could  not  hope  to  secure  for  his  revelation 
adequate  recognition  from  his  contemporaries, 
who  now  regarded  antiquity  as  necessary  to 
the  divine  authority  of  a  document.  Under 
these  circumstances,  in  order  to  obtain  proper 
respect  for  his  divine  message  the  apocalyptist 
must  write  in  the  name  of  some  honored  indi- 
vidual of  ancient  times.  This  device  also 
enabled  him  to  include  in  his  visions  the  course 
of  history  that  had  intervened  between  his  own 
day  and  that  of  the  assumed  ancient  author. 
As  the  real  author  and  his  contemporaries 
observed  the  historical  accuracy  of  this  supposed 
forecast  of  the  past,  they  were  inspired  with 
greater  confidence  in  the  reliability  of  the 
apocalyptist's  outlook  upon  the  future.  Indeed 
the  seer  himself  may  have  believed  that  what 
he  wrote  had  really  been  revealed  in  former 


y 


154 


The  Revelation  of  John 


times  to  the  worthies  of  old,  and  that  he  was 
but  repeating  what  they  could  have  written 
had  they  chosen  to  compose  apocalypses. 

Apocalyptic  writers  employed  other  literary 
devices  of  a  varied  character  for  heightening 
the  effect  of  their  message.  A  free  use  of 
allegory  is  one  of  the  most  noteworthy  features 
of  apocalyptic  style.  Instead  of  explicitly 
referring  to  concrete  historical  incidents,  the 
seer  uses  symbolic  language,  leaving  it  to  the 
imagination  of  his  reader  to  observe  the  actual 
connection  between  the  content  of  his  vision 
and  the  specific  events  of  history  with  which 
the  vision  is  concerned.  In  earlier  times  the 
prophets  had  occasionally  employed  a  simple 
form  of  allegory  to  give  added  efifectiveness 
to  their  utterances.  Amos,  for  example,  in- 
stead of  designating  the  actual  foe  who  was 
thought  to  endanger  Israel's  safety,  merely 
warned  his  audience  that  Jehovah  had  revealed 
to  him  impending  disaster  symbolized  in  a 
vision  by  destructive  locusts,  a  devouring  fire, 
or  a  threatening  plumbline.  Similarly  Jere- 
miah did  not  specify  the  name  of  the  enemy 
that  threatened  the  destruction  of  Judea,  but 
used  instead  the  allegorical  image  of  the  boiling 
caldron   to   symbolize   the   evil   that   would 


The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


15s 


presently  break  forth  from  the  north  upon  all 
the  inhabitants  of  the  land. 

In  the  hands  of  apocalyptic  writers  allegori- 
cal imagery  underwent  an  extreme  develop- 
ment, being  freely  used  to  depict  events  of  the 
past,  the  present,  and  the  future.  By  this 
means  the  author  of  Daniel  cast  a  reverential 
air  of  mystery  about  his  narrative  of  Jewish 
history  from  the  time  of  the  Exile  to  the  days 
of  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  Instead  of  merely 
designating  by  name  the  successive  kingdoms 
of  the  Babylonians,  Medes,  Persians,  and 
Macedonians,  a  heightened  effectiveness  for 
his  narrative  was  secured  by  symbolic  descrip- 
tions of  four  beasts,  whom  his  original  readers 
would  easily  recognize  as  typical  of  these  four 
great  world-powers.  Coming  events  were  also 
depicted  allegorically.  The  death  of  Antiochus 
and  the  consequent  triumph  of  the  Jewish 
people  were  described  under  the  imagery  of  a 
slain  beast  on  the  one  hand  and  a  glorious 
heavenly  creature  like  unto  a  son  of  man  on  the 
other.  Throughout  the  whole  range  of  Jewish 
apocalyptic  literature,  allegory  was  a  character- 
istic means  of  alluding  to  historical  events. 

The  apocalyptists  may  often  seem  to  revel 
in  allegorical  symbolism  merely  for  its  own 


A 


IS6 


The  Revelation  of  John 


sake,  yet  it  should  always  be  remembered  that 
there  is  a  large  measure  of  historical  reality 
beneath  much  of  their  extravagant  imagery. 
The  historical  incidents  to  which  they  allude 
are  not  always  apparent  to  later  generations, 
but  to  readers  of  their  own  time  the  meaning 
of  their  symbols  was  doubtless  self-evident 
in  view  of  the  specific  conditions  which  called 
a  particular  apocalypse  into  existence.  Thus 
allegory  served  both  to  veil  and  to  reveal  the 
seer's  message.  Those  persons  hke-minded 
with  himself,  who  belonged  to  his  own  group, 
would  read  his  words  not  only  with  ready 
apprehension  but  with  a  sympathy  and  freedom 
that  would  enable  them  to  supplement  or 
reinterpret  his  imagery  to  suit  their  own 
flights  of  fancy,  while  to  the  uninitiated  his 
book  would  be  desirably  obscure. 

On  the  other  hand  one  must  not  suppose 
that  every  item  in  apocalyptic  symbolism  was 
intended  to  represent  a  specific  historical  event. 
These  writers  did  not  limit  their  art  to  careful 
portraiture.  They  often  invented  freely  and 
inserted  in  their  paintings  many  details  with 
no  purpose  other  than  that  of  extravagant 
ornamentation.  Often  their  interest  was  simi- 
lar to  that  of  the  myth-maker  who  is  borne 


The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


157 


aloft  on  the  wings  of  his  imagination  until  the 
realities  of  the  experience  which  he  originally 
sought  to  interpret  have  been  quite  lost  from 
view.  This  was  particularly  true  in  the  case 
of  an  apocalyptist  who  freely  employed  tradi- 
tional imagery  the  original  significance  of 
which  he  often  no  longer  knew,  but  which  he 
used  because  of  its  currency  or  because  it 
appealed  to  his  fancy.  Naturally  this  feature 
is  more  pronounced  in  the  later  apocalypses, 
where  inheritances  from  earlier  writings  and 
even  contributions  from  current  mythical 
stories  become  a  part  of  the  seer's  equipment. 
Hence  it  is  not  always  possible  to  ascribe  a 
specific  meaning  to  every  item  in  apocalyptic 
imagery.  Certain  of  its  elements  often  have 
a  long  history,  of  which  even  the  author  him- 
self may  have  been  wholly  ignorant.  But 
even  the  unknown  had  its  value  for  him, 
perhaps  just  because  it  was  pervaded  by  an 
air  of  mystery  and  solemnity. 

Apocalyptic  writers  also  show  a  fondness 
for  speculating  in  numbers,  in  which  they 
sometimes  discern  a  hidden  significance.  The 
seventy  weeks  mentioned  in  Jeremiah  furnished 
the  author  of  Daniel  a  model  for  his  artificial 
subdivision  of  the  course  of  history  from  the 


1S8 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


159 


Exile  to  the  end  of  the  present  age.'  Similarly 
one  of  the  Enoch  apocalypses  divides  the 
whole  course  of  history  into  ten  world-weeks, 
each  apparently  subdivided  into  seven  weeks 
of  years.  Baruch  notes  twelve  clouds  and 
twelve  signs  of  the  end,  while  Ezra's  eagle  has 
twelve  large  and  eight  small  wings.  These 
instances  are  merely  typical  of  the  fondness 
for  repetition  and  interpretation  of  numbers 
shown  by  different  authors  of  apocalypses. 

yThe  use  of  obscure  expressions  and  circum- 
locutions is  another  means  sometimes  employed 
to  add  mystery  and  solemnity  to  the  seer's 
language.  Thus  Daniel,  instead  of  plainly 
mentioning  the  desecration  of  the  Temple  by 
Antiochus,  prefers  to  speak  of  the  "abomina- 
tion that  maketh  desolate. "  And  he  designates 
the  three  and  a  half  years  of  the  final  distress  by 
the  enigmatical  expression  "time,  times,  and 
a  half. "  Even  the  seer  himself  is  represented 
as  unable  to  comprehend  this  solemn  mystery: 
"I  heard  but  I  understood  not.  Then  said  I, 
O  my  lord,  what  shall  be  the  issue  of  these 
things?  And  he  said.  Go  thy  way,  Daniel, 
for  the  words  are  shut  up  and  sealed  till  the 
time  of  the  end."*    Yet  in  the  same  breath 


» See  above,  p.  72,  n.  x. 


•Dan.  12:8  f. 


his  angelic  informant  specifies  "a  thousand 
two  hundred  and  ninety  days''  as  the  duration 
of  affliction.  Doubtless  some  of  the  phrase- 
ology contained  in  apocalypses  was  intended  by 
the  authors  to  be  vague  or  incomprehensible, 
and  in  fact  may  have  been  such  to  the  writers 
themselves.  But  for  that  very  reason  obscure 
expressions  may  frequently  have  been  cherished 
as  having  a  peculiar  sanctity. 

/Prayers  and  hymns  constitute  another 
impressive  feature  of  apocalyptic  style.  Daniel 
furnishes  a  typical  illustration  of  prayer  as  a 
means  employed  by  the  seer  for  attaining 
unto  a  new  revelation : 

While  I  was  speaking  in  prayer,  the  man  Gabriel 
....  touched  me  about  the  time  of  the  evening 
oblation.  And  he  instructed  me  and  talked  with  me 
and  said,  O  Daniel  ....  at  the  beginning  of  thy 
supplications  the  commandment  went  forth  and  I 
am  come  to  tell  thee,  for  thou  art  greatly  beloved. 
Therefore  consider  the  matter  and  understand  the 
vision. 

In  the  Apocalypse  of  Baruch  the  seer 
frequently  appeals  to  the  Lord  in  prayer,  and 
the  first  vision  of  Ezra  is  prefaced  by  a  lengthy 
suppUcation  for  divine  assistance  to  explain 
the  reasons  for  the  Jews'  terrible  afflictions. 


i6o 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


i6i 


The  hymns  of  seraphim  or  angelic  choirs 
also  add  to  the  magnificence  of  apocalyptic 
scenery.  A  model  for  this  feature  of  apoca- 
lyptic was  furnished  by  Isaiah's  vision  of 
the  seraphic  choir  which  sang  antiphonally : 
*^Holy,  holy,  holy  is  Jehovah  of  hosts;  the 
whole  earth  is  full  of  his  glory.  ''*  On  beholding 
the  glories  of  heaven  Enoch  *' cried  with  a 
loud  voice,  with  the  spirit  of  power,  and 
blessed  and  glorified  and  extolled."  This 
same  apocalypse  also  describes  the  great 
hymn  of  triumph  to  be  sung  in  honor  of  the 
Lord  of  Spirits  on  the  day  of  judgment,  when 
all  the  hosts  of  heaven  and  earth  shall  exclaim 
with  one  voice: 

Blessed  is  he,  and  may  the  name  of  the  Lord  of 
spirits  be  blessed  forever  and  ever.  All  who  sleep 
not  above  ia  heaven  shall  bless  him,  all  the  holy  ones 
who  are  in  heaven  shall  bless  him,  and  all  the  elect 
who  dwell  in  the  garden  of  life.  And  every  spirit  of 
light  who  is  able  to  bless  and  glorify  and  extol  and 
hallow  thy  blessed  name,  and  all  flesh  shall  beyond 
measure  glorify  and  bless  thy  name  forever  and  ever. 

V.      THE   COMPOSITION   OF   JOHN'S   APOCALYPSE 

The  Revelation  of  John  exhibits  in  its 
structure  the  same  general  literary  traits  that 

'Isa.  6:3 


mark  representative  Jewish  apocalypses.  In 
both  form  and  content  it  follows  lines  with 
which  the  Jews  and  early  Christians  had  been 
made  familiar  by  the  Book  of  Daniel  and  its 
numerous  successors.  Following  the  example 
of  his  predecessors  John  wrote  under  the 
pressure  of  a  very  specific  demand  of  the  hour, 
he  moved  freely  in  the  realm  of  customary 
apocalyptic  thinking,  and  he  shared  in  full 
the  characteristic  ecstatic  equipment  which 
especially  authenticated  a  seer.    / 

The  Johannine  revelation,  however,  belongs 
to  that  type  of  apocalypse  in  which  literary 
artifice  is  most  pronounced.  A  summary  of 
its  contents  discloses  a  comparatively  highly 
developed  literary  structure.  The  book  opens 
with  a  specific  title,  informing  readers  that  it 
contains  a  revelation  from  heaven  especially 
communicated  to  the  author  for  the  benefit 
of  those  who  wish  to  learn  of  events  that  are 
shortly  coming  to  pass  (1:1-3).  ^^  character- 
istic epistolary  fashion  John  addresses  a  greeting 
to  the  principal  churches  of  the  Roman  province 
of  Asia,  where  he  expects  the  book  to  circulate 
(1:4-8).  At  the  outset  he  clearly  states  his 
theme  by  an  emphatic  declaration  of  belief 
in  the  early  and  visible  coming  of   Christ. 


l62 


The  Revelation  oj  John 


As  a  further  preparation  for  the  proper  reception 
of  his  message,  John  describes  at  some  length 
the  unique  equipment  divinely  vouchsafed  to 
him  for  the  performance  of  his  responsible  task 
(1:9-20).  While  '4n  the  Spirit"  he  had  been 
transported  to  heaven,  where  he  was  admitted 
into  the  very  presence  of  Christ,  who  explicitly 
commissioned  him  to  write  the  apocalypse. 

The  first  section  in  the  main  body  of  the 
work  consists  of  admonitions  to  the  seven 
churches  of  Asia  (chaps.  2  f.).  These  several 
communities  are  variously  congratulated  for 
their  fidelity,  reproved  for  their  shortcomings, 
and  exhorted  to  institute  such  moral  or  spiritual 
reforms  as  will  properly  fit  them  for  the  immi- 
nent advent  of  Christ.  John  utters  his  impres- 
sive messages  of  warning  or  consolation,  not 
merely  on  his  own  authority,  but  rather  as  an 
expression  of  the  will  of  heaven. 

After  admonishing  his  readers  to  purify 
themselves  for  the  speedy  coming  of  Christ, 
John  proceeds  to  assure  them  of  an  early 
deliverance  from  the  oppressions  of  Rome. 
The  ground  of  this  hope  is  the  very  power  of 
heaven  itself.  God  and  Christ  are  to  intervene 
on  their  behalf  by  instituting  a  mighty  judg- 
ment upon  the  Roman  Empire.    In  order  to 


The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


163 


convince  his  readers  that  the  heavenly  powers 
are  fully  equal  to  this  task,  John  describes 
the  glories  of  heaven  as  revealed  to  him  in 
the  ecstasy  of  visions  (chaps.  4  f.).     First  he 
portrays  the  majesty  of   God,  who  is  seen 
sitting  upon  his  throne,   surrounded  by  his 
royal  subordinates,  the  whole  scene  exhibiting 
an  imperial  authority  vastly  greater  than  that 
of  any  Roman  emperor.    The  effect  is  further 
heightened  by  a  vision  of  the  heavenly  dignity 
of  Christ,  who  is  to  be  the  specific  agent  of  God 
in  accompHshing  the  deliverance  of  Christians. 
When  Christ  appears  upon  the  scene  in  heaven, 
exhibiting  his  ability  to  open  the  sealed  book, 
the  entire  angelic  host  unites  with  the  members 
of  the  royal  court  in  rendering  him  fulsome 
praise  as  the  one  who  possesses  transcendent 
glory  and  power.    John's  confidence  is  made 
doubly  strong  by  the  vision  of  a  final  outburst 
of  praise  uttered  by  all  creation  in  acknowledg- 
ment of  the  unsurpassable  glory  attaching  to 
the  combined  power  of  God  and  Christ.     By 
this  heavenly  demonstration  John  would  assure 
his    readers    that    the    speedy    overthrow    of 
hostile  Rome  was  inevitable. 

Having    affirmed    his    confidence    in    the 
heavenly  powers  that  will  ultimately  insure 


164 ' 


The  Revelation  oj  John 


the  triumph  of  the  Christian  cause,  John  enters 
upon    a    description    of    the    aggravation    of 
distresses   to  precede   the   end    (chaps.    6f.). 
These  also  are  revealed  to  him  in  a  series  of 
visions  as  the  successive  seals  of  the  heavenly 
book  were  broken  by  Christ.    The  opening  of 
each  seal  discloses  a  new  form  of  affliction 
presently  to  overtake  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Roman  world.     But  amid  these  portrayals  of 
approaching  calamity  John  is  shown  a  picture 
insuring  the  safety  of  the  saints,  who  remain 
true    to    Christ    throughout    all    their    trials. 
Clothed  in  white  robes  and  carrying  palms  in 
their  hands  the  company  of  the  redeemed  is 
seen  in  the  act  of  rendering  praise  to  God  and 
to   Christ,   while  angels  join   in   the   chorus, 
making   special   declaration   of   the   almighty 
glory  and  power  of  God,  who  is  the  ultimate 
source  of  salvation.    The  blessed  estate  of  the 
redeemed  is  glowingly  described.    They  will 
remain  under  the  constant  protection  of  God, 
while  Christ  will  devote  himself  especially  to 
their  care. 

The  opening  of  the  seventh  seal  discloses 
to  John  a  new  vision  of  tragic  events  to  occur 
in  the  last  times  (chaps.  8-1 1).  He  beholds 
seven  angels  with  trumpets,  standing  ready  to 


The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


i6s 


give  the  signal  for  letting  loose  a  succession  of 
calamities  upon  mortals.  First  will  come  a 
series  of  four  preliminary  agonies  in  the  form 
of  a  destructive  electric  storm,  a  volcanic 
eruption,  an  injury  to  rivers  and  springs,  and  a 
diminution  in  the  brightness  of  sun,  moon, 
and  stars.  These  milder  forms  of  affliction  are 
to  be  followed  by  three  more  deadly  **woes. " 
Monstrous  demonic  creatures  released  from 
the  lower  world  will  torture  mankind  for  a 
period  of  five  months.  Christians  alone  being 
delivered  from  their  power.  The  second  woe 
will  come  from  the  east,  whence  a  horde  of 
monstrous  horsemen  will  swarm  forth  to  over- 
nm  the  Roman  Empire.  The  third  woe  is  to 
be  the  execution  of  God's  final  judgment  upon 
the  heathen. 

Following  this  general  sketch  of  the  fate  to 
overtake  the  wicked  Roman  world,  John 
offers  a  somewhat  more  detailed  and  inter- 
pretative description  of  events  to  attend  the 
final  destruction  of  evil.  He  reminds  his 
readers  that  the  real  source  of  the  world's 
troubles  is  the  activity  of  demonic  powers 
(chaps.  12  f.).  The  agonies  of  the  last  times 
will  be  occasioned  by  the  final  effort  of  these 
Satanic  forces  to  possess  themselves  of  the 


/ 


i66 


The  Revelation  of  John 


whole  world.  As  John  pictures  this  final 
struggle  it  is  not  simply  a  conflict  between 
Christians  and  pagans,  but  a  deadly  combat 
between  the  powers  of  heaven  and  the  powers 
of  hell.  With  the  failure  of  Satan's  efforts  to 
extend  his  power  heavenward,  he  seeks  to 
wreak  his  vengeance  upon  mortals,  and  thus 
the  final  period  of  tribulation  is  inaugurated. 
As  a  phase  of  this  activity  Satanic  power 
becomes  incarnate  in  the  imperial  beast,  who 
presides  over  the  government  of  the  Roman 
Empire  and  seeks  to  impose  worship  of  himself 
upon  all  his  subjects. 

Turning  from  this  picture  of  the  final 
outburst  of  demonic  activity,  the  seer  is  per- 
mitted to  gaze  upon  new  scenes  exhibiting  the 
triumph  of  the  saints  and  the  utter  destruction 
of  Rome  (chaps.  14-18).  He  hears  heavenly 
voices  pronouncing  doom  not  only  upon  Rome 
itself  but  upon  all  those  inhabitants  of  the 
Empire  who  yield  to  the  demands  of  the  impe- 
rial cult.  John's  vision  reveals  successive  stages 
in  the  manifestations  of  divine  wrath  prelimi- 
nary to  the  complete  destruction  of  the  great 
pagan  city,  which  is  figuratively  designated  as 
Babylon,  the  wicked  woman  full  of  abomina- 
tions, and  drunk  with  the  blood  of  the  saints 


The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


167 


and  with  the  blood  of  the  martyrs  of  Jesus. 
But  she  is  destined  for  early  destruction. 
In  John's  very  presence  angelic  voices  pro- 
nounce imminent  and  irrevocable  doom  upon 
all  of  her  activities.  Her  commerce,  her 
wealth,  her  ornaments,  her  luxuries,  and  her 
power  are  to  perish  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye, 
when  God  shall  render  unto  her  a  double 
punishment  for  all  her  iniquities. 

Since  Rome  had  become  the  special  agent 
of  Satan  in  his  efforts  to  secure  control  of  the 
world,  the  utter  destruction  of  the  city  was  a 
severe  blow  to  his  ambitions.  But  the  triumph 
of  righteousness  was  not  yet  fully  accomplished, 
nor  could  victory  be  complete  until  the  remain- 
ing power  of  Satan  had  been  crushed.  A 
vivid  forecast  of  this  final  consummation  was 
also  exhibited  to  John  (19:1 — 22:5).  Christ 
would  descend  in  the  role  of  conquering  hero 
and  wreak  a  fearful  vengeance  upon  his  re- 
maining enemies.  So  deadly  would  be  the 
slaughter  that  none  would  survive.  The  im- 
perial beast,  that  is,  the  last  emperor,  who 
apparently  had  escaped  Rome's  downfall,  and 
the  priest  of  his  cult  who  had  forced  worship 
of  the  ruler  upon  men,  alone  would  be  saved 
for  eternal  punishment  in  the  fiery  lake  of 


i68 


The  Revelation  of  John 


burning  brimstone.  Satan  would  be  firmly 
locked  down  in  the  lower  regions  for  a  thousand 
years,  while  martyred  Christians  who  had 
refused  to  worship  the  emperor  would  en- 
joy a  period  of  millennial  bliss  with  Christ 
on  earth.  The  millennium  would  be  followed 
by  a  temporary  release  of  Satan,  when  he 
would  make  his  last  futile  effort  at  self-assertion, 
resulting  in  his  complete  downfall.  Then 
God's  judgment  throne  would  be  set  up  on 
earth,  the  dead  would  be  raised,  rewards  and 
punishments  would  be  decreed,  and  the  right- 
eous would  dwell  forever  with  God  in  the  new 
Jerusalem. 

In  order  to  impress  readers  with  the  reliabil- 
ity of  his  message,  John  concludes  by  reaffirm- 
ing its  heavenly  origin  (22:6-17).  Once  more 
his  visions  are  declared  to  have  been  received 
by  angelic  mediation  from  the  God  of  the 
spirits  of  the  prophets.  Convinced  that  he 
has  obtained  the  content  of  his  apocalypse 
from  this  heavenly  source,  he  believes  it  to  be 
an  absolute  guaranty  of  Christ's  imminent 
advent.  In  this  confidence  he  solemnly  admon- 
ishes his  contemporaries  to  accept  without 
question  or  alteration  his  interpretation  of  the 
future    (22:18  f.).    So    certain    is  he  of    the 


The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


169 


accuracy  of  his  forecast  that  he  pronounces 
doom  upon  everyone  who  dares  to  disagree 
with  him,  whether  by  adding  to  or  subtracting 
from  the  elaborate  apocalyptic  program  which 
he  has  outlined.  Such  were  the  assurances 
offered  by  John  to  the  persecuted  Christians 
of  Asia  as  an  encouragement  to  fidelity  in  the 
hour  of  their  testing.  ' 

The  foregoing  analysis  of  the  Book  of 
Revelation  shows  that  it  was  constructed  in 
accordance  with  a  well-designed  plan.  Its 
constituent  materials  were  carefully  selected 
and  arranged  to  accomplish  a  definite  purpose, 
which  the  author  kept  constantly  in  mind 
throughout  the  entire  book.  Its  structural 
unity  and  symmetrical  arrangement  prove  it 
to  have  been  a  studied  composition  of  a  literary 
artist  of  high  order  among  apocalyptic  writers. 
No  other  apocalyptist  exhibits  clearer  evidences 
of  strength  of  personality  or  a  more  manifest 
power  of  originality  in  meeting  the  demands  of 
a  specific  historic  crisis.  While  John  writes 
with  the  characteristic  unction  of  a  seer  moved 
by  ecstatic  zeal  and  reveling  in  marvelous 
visions,  his  book  is  no  haphazard  reproduction 
of  habitual  trance  experiences.  On  the  con- 
trary, as  it  now  stands  Revelation  is  manifestly 


170 


The  Revelation  of  John 


the  studious  work  of  sober  and  industrious 
hours  applied  to  the  production  of  a  carefully 
planned  literary  composition.  Although  it 
purports  to  be  just  one  continuous  descrip- 
tion of  things  seen  and  heard  in  marvelous 
visions,  nevertheless  the  underlying  didactic 
design  is  perfectly  apparent.  To  this  the 
author  necessarily  gavfe  not  a  little  serious 
thought  both  in  determining  the  content  of  his 
argument  and  in  working  out  the  form  of  its 
presentation. 

The  evident  fact  of  literary  design  under- 
lying the  composition  of  Revelation  should  not 
blind  one  to  the  seriousness  of  the  author's 
purpose  nor  to  the  element  of  realism  in  his 
book.  He  wrote  under  a  strain  of  intense 
emotion  and  out  of  a  vital  experience  rarely 
equaled  and  probably  never  excelled  by  any 
of  his  apocalyptic  predecessors.  He  had  been 
mightily  moved  by  the  pressure  of  extraordi- 
nary circumstances,  which  had  exerted  a  very 
immediate  and  powerful  influence  upon  his 
own  life.  Driven  to  action  by  Rome's  hostil- 
ity toward  Christians,  he  displayed  a  realism 
that  would  hardly  have  been  possible  had  his 
incentive  been  merely  the  production  of  an 
entertaining  piece  of  literature.    Although  he 


The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


171 


freely  indulged  in  some  very  daring  flights  of 
fancy,  he  did  not  employ  apocalyptic  imagery 
primarily  to  gratify  an  extravagant  literary 
taste  either  on  his  own  part  or  on  the  part  of 
his  readers.  He  did  not  aim  to  write  a  popular 
religious  novel.  From  first  to  last  his  chief 
purpose  was  to  interpret  the  very  real  facts  of 
a  most  trying  experience  through  which  he  and 
his  fellow-Christians  were  passing  when  Revela- 
tion was  composed. 

Are  the  visions  described  in  Revelation 
wholly  a  product  of  deliberate  literary  inven- 
tion, or  do  they  at  least  to  some  extent  represent 
real  ecstatic  experiences  on  the  part  of  the 
author?  While  in  its  composition  the  book 
exhibits  unmistakable  evidences  of  skilful  delib- 
eration, nevertheless  the  ultimate  source  of 
much  of  the  author's  apocalyptic  imagery 
should  undoubtedly  be  sought  in  real  visions 
incited  by  the  stirring  events  of  the  times. 
The  strenuous  experiences  through  which  Chris- 
tians were  passing  as  a  result  of  their  refusal  to 
worship  the  emperor  inevitably  gave  fresh 
stimulus  to  the  emotional  side  of  religious  life, 
which  was  already  so  pronounced  a  feature  of 
early  Christianity.  As  a  missionary  leader 
among  Gentiles,  Paul  had  shown  himself  to  be 


172 


The  Revelation  of  John 


a  man  of  visions  and  revelations/  and  even 
among  the  rank  and  file  of  the  Christian 
community  at  Corinth  ecstasy  occupied  a 
prominent  place.^  Doubtless  groups  of  be- 
lievers in  Ephesus  and  other  Asian  cities 
enjoyed  a  similar  sense  of  emotional  elevation 
ascribed  to  possession  by  the  new  Christian 
Spirit.  The  power  of  the  Holy  Spirit  to 
produce  ecstatic  experiences  was  thought  by 
the  author  of  Acts  to  have  been  a  special 
possession  of  Christians  ever  since  the  time  of 
their  first  Pentecostal  endowment.  John  '*in 
the  Spirit"  on  the  island  of  Patmos  and  under 
the  peculiar  tensity  of  emotion  induced  by 
resisting  the  aggressions  of  the  imperial  cult 
would  undoubtedly  share  in  full  measure  the 
highly  prized  privilege  of  receiving  new  revela- 
tions and  visions  as  realistic  phenomena  of 
ecstatic  religious  experience. 

This  sense  of  inner  certainty  is  further 
evinced  by  the  fact  that  John  wrote  in  his  own 
name  instead  of  employing  the  name  of  an 
ancient  worthy  to  authenticate  his  revelation. 
There  is  no  good  reason  to  doubt  the  genuine- 
ness of  the  author's  reference  to  himself  as 
"John,  your  brother"  who  wrote  his  book  under 


»II  Cor.  12:1-5. 


'  I  Cor.,  chaps.  12-14. 


■* 


The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


173 


c 


the  conviction  that  the  Spirit  authorized  him 
to  communicate  this  message  to  his  suffering 
fellow-Christians.     Any  Christian  who  experi- 
enced in  his  own  religious  life  the  new  emo- 
tional elevation  which  belief  in  the  heavenly 
Christ  made  possible  was  regarded  in  Christian 
circles  as  possessing  an  immediate  authority 
quite  equal  or  even  superior  to  that  of  any  Old 
Testament   worthy.     Moreover,    at   the   time 
Revelation  was  written  no  distinctively  Chris- 
tian collection  of  books  had  yet  been  assembled 
into  a  canon  of  Scripture  set  apart  as  peculiarly 
authoritative  on  the  ground  that  these  docu- 
ments were  connected  with  the  names  of  the 
primitive  apostles.    Even  if  the  John  of  Revela- 
tion was  one  of  the  Twelve,  a  question  about 
which  there  is  much  uncertainty,'  it  is  particu- 
larly noteworthy  that  he  makes  no  use  of  any 
such  official  prerogative  to  win  a  hearing  for 
his  words.     He  assumes  that  the  simple  men- 
tion of  himself  as  "your  brother"  who  received 
his  revelation  "in  the  Spirit"  will  seem  to  his 
readers  a  fully  adequate  authentication  for  his 
book. 

John's  task  as  an  author  was  to  give  concrete 
and  orderly  verbal  expression  to  convictions 

'  See  below,  pp.  200  flf. 


174 


The  Revelation  of  John 


acquired  through  the  elusive  medium  of  ecstatic 
visions.  Paul  had  excused  himself  from  under- 
taking a  similar  task  on  the  ground  that  things 
heard  by  him  on  a  certain  occasion  when  he 
had  been  caught  up  into  Paradise  were  "un- 
speakable words  which  it  is  not  lawful  for  a 
man  to  utter."'  But  John  believed  that  the 
Spirit  had  explicitly  ordered  the  publication 
of  the  wisdom  revealed  to  him  in  his  visions. 
Hence  he  carefully  composed  an  apocalypse 
employing  the  literary  methods  characteristic 
of  this  type  of  writing.  The  details  of  his 
visions  were  elaborately  worked  out,  and  the 
whole  was  skilfully  arranged  according  to  a 
definite  plan  in  order  to  accomplish  a  specific 
didactic  purpose.  Thus  both  ecstatic  experi- 
ence and  literary  artifice  made  their  respective  . 
contributions  toward  the  genesis  of  his  book. 

Certain  outstanding  characteristics  of  John's 
literary  method  are  especially  worthy  of  the 
interpreter's  attention.  In  the  first  place  the 
seer's  visions  refer  only  to  recent  and  anticipated 
occurrences.  Unlike  many  of  his  Jewish  pred- 
ecessors he  makes  no  attempt  to  give  veri- 
similitude to  his  revelation  by  prophesying 
events  already  passed.    Since  he  was  writing 

»II  Cor.  12:4. 


The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


17s 


in  his  own  name  it  was  not  possible  to  assume 
the  role  of  an  ancient  prophet,  and  the  con- 
sciousness of  immediate  spiritual  authentica- 
tion rendered  unnecessary  any  resort  to  this 
familiar  device  of  Jewish  apocalyptic.  Under 
these  circumstances  John  centered  his  attention 
upon  the  interpretation  of  contemporary  and 
impending  events.  His  visions  are  concerned 
with  the  status  of  Christian  communities 
threatened  by  Roman  persecution,  with  the 
grounds  of  Christian  confidence  in  the  hour 
of  danger,  with  the  increase  of  troubles  to  be 
anticipated  for  the  near  future,  with  the  im- 
minent downfall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  with 
the  victorious  return  of  the  heavenly  Christ, 
and  with  the  ultimate  establishment  of  the  new 
heaven  and  the  new  earth. 

John's  predominant  interest  in  the  present 
and  the  future  does  not,  however,  involve  a 
complete  break  with  the  past  in  the  sense  that 
earlier  apocalyptic  literature  and  thinking  con- 
tributed nothing  to  the  making  of  his  revelation. 
Quite  the  opposite  is  the  fact.  While  undoubt- 
edly there  is  a  large  element  of  originality  in  his 
work,  involving  as  it  does  distinctly  new  themes 
and  problems,  it  is  not  an  absolutely  new 
creation.    Even  items  derived  directly  from 


176 


The  Revelatian  of  John 


The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


177 


the  actual  ecstatic  visions  of  the  author  would 
owe  not  a  little  to  the  suggestiveness  of  existing 
apocalyptic  tradition  with  which  John  was 
already  familiar.  Acquaintance  with  this  type 
of  Jewish  thinking  would  certainly  equip  him 
for,  if  indeed  it  may  not  have  been  an  important 
factor  in  inducing,  the  state  of  mind  that  made 
possible  his  visions.  And  those  portions  of 
his  apocalypse,  constituting  undoubtedly  the 
greater  part  of  his  book,  which  owe  their  im- 
mediate form  to  the  more  sober  processes  of 
literary  composition  are  found  to  contain  not 
a  few  inherited  elements  even  after  the  great- 
est possible  allowance  has  been  made  for  the 
original  genius  of  the  author. 

Certain  general  respects  in  which  Revela- 
tion shows  itself  to  have  been  a  genuine  heir 
of  the  great  apocalyptic  inheritance  have  al- 
ready been  noted.  In  subsequent  study  of 
the  text  specific  items  of  this  inheritance  will 
be  examined  as  occasion  may  require.  For  the 
present  it  will  suffice  to  observe  the  varied 
extent  of  the  materials  available  for  John's  use. 
That  he  was  familiar  with  Jewish  apocalyptic 
documents  is  beyond  question,  and  his  large 
debt  to  Jewish  predecessors  is  equally  certain. 
In  fact  some  students  of  the  book  have  supposed 


that  large  sections  of  the  text  were  taken  over 
bodily  or  in  slightly  revised  form  from  existing 
Jewish  apocalypses.  This  is  probably  an  over- 
statement of  the  fact.  Against  any  such  theory 
of  mechanical  compilation  one  must  set  the 
distinct  unity  of  purpose  and  style  as  well  as  the 
consistent  plan  that  pervades  the  book.  Per- 
haps more  significant  still  as  an  evidence  of 
essential  literary  unity  is  the  persistent  protest 
against  emperor-worship  which  colors  every 
part  of  Revelation.  For  Jews,  at  least,  worship 
of  the  Roman  emperor  was  never  a  sufficiently 
crucial  problem  to  call  forth  extensive  apocalyp- 
tic documents  of  the  type  that  would  have  been 
suitable  to  John's  needs.  While  his  debt  to 
Jewish  antecedents  is  undoubtedly  extensive, 
it  belongs  more  largely  in  the  realm  of  appro- 
priated imagery  and  modes  of  thought  than  in 
the  sphere  of  direct  literary  dependence. 

John,  however,  was  not  the  first  Christian 
interested  in  apocalyptic,  nor  is  he  likely  to 
have  been  the  first  to  compose  some  sort  of 
revelation.  In  fact  early  Christian  literature, 
as  has  already  been  pointed  out,  contains 
examples  of  this  class  of  writing  already  in 
existence  before  John's  day.  And  it  is  not 
inconceivable   that   he   may   have   found   in 


178 


The  Revelation  of  John 


circulation  certain  shorter  apocalypses  of  early 
Christian  seers  which  he  could  use  in  the 
preparation  of  his  book  in  somewhat  the  same 
way  that  the  authors  of  Matthew  and  Luke 
used  Mark.  Indeed,  attempts  have  been  made 
to  discover  in  Revelation  one  or  more  original 
Christian  documents  later  supplemented  and 
revised  by  an  editor.  But  the  theory  encoun- 
ters grave  difficulties.  For  its  positive  basis 
it  rests  upon  certain  alleged  illogical  connec- 
tions and  inconsistencies  observable  in  different 
parts  of  the  book.  These  phenomena,  however, 
may  be  merely  characteristic  of  John's  own 
mental  processes  and  not  at  all  the  result  of 
awkward  Uterary  compilation.  Moreover,  the 
pronounced  unity  of  interest  and  general  aim 
transcending  all  minor  inconsistencies  counts 
strongly  in  favor  of  the  opinion  that  Revelation 
is  mainly  the  literary  work  of  a  single  hand. 
[The  pervasive  motif  is  everywhere  to  interpret 
the  conflict  between  Christianity  and  the 
Roman  state  due  to  the  aggression  of  the  impe- 
1  rial  cult.  Apparently  this  topic  had  not  become 
a  crucial  one  for  Christians  previous  to  John's 
day.  Even  in  Nero's  persecution  refusal  to 
worship  the  emperor  had  not  been  the  issue, 
and  there  is  no  indication  that  this  demand  had 


The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


179 


been  pressed  upon  Christians  prior  to  the  time 
of  Domitian.  It  is  therefore  quite  unlikely 
that  John  would  have  found  ready  at  hand  any 
very  extensive  Christian  apocalyptic  literature 
dealing  with  the  particular  theme  in  which  he 
was  interested. 

In  treating  Revelation  as  a  first-hand 
product  of  John's  own  pen,  one  should  not 
forget  that  the  author  was  employing  the 
familiar  paraphernalia  of  earlier  Jewish  and 
Christian  apocalyptic,  which  furnished  both 
inspiration  and  models  for  his  own  composition. 
Nor  is  it  improbable  that  he  would  to  some 
extent  appropriate  apocalyptic  oracles  known 
to  him  either  in  written  form  or  through  oral 
transmission.  In  a  few  instances  the  presence 
of  such  erratic  blocks  of  floating  tradition  may 
have  to  be  assumed  as  the  most  plausible 
explanation  of  certain  minor  obscurities  or 
inconsistencies  in  the  text.  Apocalyptic  writers 
did  not  always  regard  intelligibility  as  the 
highest  criterion  of  value  in  their  books,  and 
the  very  obscurity  of  an  oracular  utterance 
seems  sometimes  to  have  lent  it  a  mysterious 
solemnity  which  was  especially  prized.  But 
these  features  in  Revelation  may  often  be  due 
to  John's  free  use  of  current  traditional  imagery 


i8o 


The  Revelation  of  John  ^ 


The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


i8i 


rather  than  to  any  slavish  reproduction  of 
fragmentary  written  apocalypses. 

Popular  gentile  imagery  was  also  taken 
over  by  John.  He  pictures  the  imperial  beast 
of  the  last  times  as  a  reincarnation  of  a  former 
emperor.^  Not  only  was  belief  in  the  rein- 
carnation of  souls  a  characteristic  gentile  notion, 
but  manifestly  John  is  appropriating  the  current 
legends  regarding  Nero's  return  to  establish 
himself  in  power  once  more  over  the  Roman 
Empire.  Again,  in  reserving  eternal  punish- 
ment for  the  beast  and  his  priest  and  Satan, 
John  may  be  following  the  gentile  precedent  of 
consigning  only  the  greatest  sinners  to  ever- 
lasting torture.  Indeed,  it  may  be  that  a 
comparatively  large  amount  of  the  fantastic 
imagery  displayed  in  many  of  John's  pictures 
was  derived  from,  or  at  least  suggested  by, 
traditional  mythological  ideas  current  in  the 
author's  gentile  environment. 

In  general  the  genetic  forces  entering  into 
the  making  of  the  New  Testament  Revelation 
were  similar  both  in  variety  and  in  form  to 
those  affecting  the  composition  of  its  principal 
Jewish  predecessors.  It  too  was  an  elaborate 
document  representing  a  studied  literary  effort 

■Rev.  13:3;  17:11. 


\ 

\ 


on  the  part  of  its  author.  Although  possessing 
personal  experience  in  the  realm  of  ecstatic 
visions,  when  writing  his  book  he  deliberately 
selected,  arranged,  and  interpreted  a  variety 
of  materials.  The  completed  book  combined 
items  from  his  ecstatic  experience,  elements 
created  by  his  own  skill  in  literary  invention, 
data  from  current  apocalyptic  tradition  whether 
oral  or  written  in  form,  and  suggestions  derived 
from  fanciful  imagery  belonging  to  the  mythol- 
ogy of  the  contemporary  gentile  world. 

On  its  more  formal  side  Revelation  was 
composed  in  accordance  with  the  methods 
commonly  employed  by  apocalyptic  writers 
of  the  period.  The  literary  form  of  vision  is 
preserved  throughout  and  the  standard  devices 
for  creating  a  heightened  air  of  mysterious 
solemnity  abound.  Allegory  is  used  as  a  means 
of  referring  to  contemporary  history.  The 
Roman  rulers  are  never  mentioned  by  name, 
and  Rome  herself  is  symbolically  designated 
as  a  wicked  woman  and  as  "Babylon  the 
great. "  But  when  this  Babylon  is  said  to  be 
drunken  with  the  blood  of  the  martyrs  of 
Jesus,  John's  persecuted  fellow-Christians  of 
Asia  would  have  no  difficulty  in  recognizing 
the  meaning  of  his  allegorical  allusions.    To 


l82 


The  Revelation  of  John 


the  uninitiated  such  language  might  be  mean- 
ingless,  but  to  those  for  whom  Revelation  was 
written  allegory  did  not  hide,  but  rather 
heightened,   the  significance  of  the  author's 

message. 

Since  John's  visions  deal  so  largely  with 
future  events,  it  is  not  possible  to  make  all  of 
his  allegorical  statements  refer  to  specifically 
known   historical   incidents.     Nevertheless   it 
would  be  quite  unfair  to  him  if  one  failed  to 
recognize  the  seriousness  of  his  effort  to  depict 
specific  future  occurrences  in  which  he  himself 
had  implicit  faith.    He  did  not  use  allegorical 
imagery    as    a    cloak    for    uncertainty    when 
describing  anticipated  events  of  future  history. 
The  downfall  of  Rome  and  the  coming  of 
Christ  are  as  real  for  him  as  if  he  had  said 
"Rome"    instead    of    "Babylon,"    and    had 
called  Christ  by  name  instead  of  referring  to 
him  in  a  roundabout  way  as  "the  faithful  and 
true,"  "the  Word  of  God."     In  apocalypses 
such   language   is   designed   to   heighten   the 
effect  and  make  more  vivid  the  scene  described, 
but  not  to  suggest  any  note  of  unreaUty.    It 
is  only  to  later  generations  of  readers,  no  longer 
familiar  with  the  author's  environment,  that 
his    words    become    obscure.    To    them    his 


The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


183 


meaning  might  have  been  more  clear  had  he 
used  plain  words  instead  of  allegorical  allusions, 
but  such  was  not  the  case  with  his  original 
readers.  For  himself  and  his  anxious  contem- 
poraries the  coming  events  pictorially  described 
in  his  visions  were  just  as  real,  and  as  integral 
an  item  of  history  in  the  near  future,  as  were 
the  afflictions  with  which  Christians  were  threat- 
ened when  Revelation  was  composed. 

On  the  other  hand,   in  Revelation  as  in 
Jewish  apocalypses  it  would  be  futile  to  insist 
that  every  item  of  apocalyptic  imagery  contains 
an  allusion  to  some  specific  incident  or  character 
in  present  or  future  history.     Probably  many 
features  in  the  pictures  painted  by  the  seer 
were  intended  to  serve  merely  as  ornamenta- 
tion.   John  also  follows  Jewish  precedent  in 
his  fondness   for   significant    numbers,   seven 
being  an  especial  favorite.     There  are  seven 
churches,    seven    lampstands,     seven    stars, 
seven  spirits  of  God,  seven  lamps,  seven  seals, 
seven  eyes   and   seven   horns   of   the   Lamb, 
seven  angels  with  trumpets,  seven  angels  with 
bowls,    seven    plagues,    seven    heads    of    the 
dragon,    seven    heads    of    the    scarlet    beast, 
seven  mountains,   seven  kings.    Three,  four, 
ten,   twelve,   and   certain   of   their   multiples 


i84 


The  Revelation  of  John 


ill 


also  occur  frequently,  in  fact  so  frequently 
that  their  use  must  be  regarded  as  a  deliberate 
feature  in  the  literary  style  of  the  author. 

John  is  particularly  fond  of  circumlocutions 
employed  to  lend  an  atmosphere  of  mysterious 
elevation  to  his  descriptions.    Prayer  imagery 
on  the  other  hand  is  quite  generally  avoided, 
although  there  is  a  reference  to  the  souls  of  the 
slain  underneath  an  altar  in  heaven  caUing 
for  vengeance.'     But  Revelation  is  remarkable 
for  its  numerous  hymns.     After  the  model  of 
the  seraphim  m  Isaiah,  four  heavenly  creatures 
hover  around  the  throne  of  God  constantly 
chanting  the  ^^Holy,  holy,  holy."    On  various 
occasions   angelic   choirs   praise   the   glorious 
majesty  of  God  and  Christ,  while  at  other 
times    the    redeemed    break    forth    in    song. 
Possibly  most  of  these  hymns  that  emerge  so 
spontaneously  upon  the  pages  of  the  apocalypse 
were  already  familiar  to  John  from  their  fre- 
quent use  in  the  public  worship  of  the  Christian 

gatherings. 

Thus  a  great  complexity  of  factors  must  be 
kept  in  mind  when  endeavoring  to  picture  the 
situation  which  brought  about  the  composi- 
tion of  the  Book  of  Revelation.    But  for  the 

'Rev.  6:9 


The  Making  of  a  Revelation 


i8s 


purposes  of  correct  interpretation  it  is  of 
primary  importance  to  appreciate  the  specific 
historical  conditions  that  prompted  John's 
activity,  and  to  understand  the  general  method 
of  literary  procedure  followed  in  the  production 
of  all  apocal3npses  and  particularly  those  of 
Jewish  origin.  With  these  facts  constantly  in 
mind  one  may  readily  pass  to  a  more  detailed 
study  of  the  Johannine  apocalypse. 


Warnings  to  the  Churches 


187 


1:1 


CHAPTER  IV 

WARNINGS  TO  THE  CHURCHES 
(REV.,  CHAPS.  1-3)  N 

The  first  section  of  John's  Revelation  de- 
scribes a  vision  of  the  heavenly  Christ  from 
whom  the  seer  received  a  message  for  each  of 
seven  selected  churches  in  the  province  of  Asia. 
After  a  brief  paragraph  of  introduction  defining 
the  general  character  of  the  book  (i :  1-3)  and 
a  few  words  of  greeting  to  the  readers  (1:4-8) 
the  author  gives  a  detailed  account  of  the  vision 
which  equipped  him  for  the  work  of  a  genuine 
apocalyptic  seer  ( i :  9-20) .  Having  thus  demon- 
strated his  claim  to  speak  with  authority,  he 
delivers  the  message  which  he,  as  spokesman 
for  the  heavenly  Christ,  sends  to  the  several 
Christian  groups  in  Ephesus  (2:1-7),  Smyrna 
(2:8-11),  Pergamum  (2:12-17),  Thyatira 
(2:18-29),  Sardis  (3:1-6),  Philadelphia  (3:7- 
13),  and  Laodicea  (3:14-22). 

I.      TITLE   OF   THE   BOOK    (1:1-3) 

A  revelation  from  Jesus  Christ  which  God  gave 
to  him  in  order  to  disclose  to  his  servants  what  must 
speedily  come  to  pass.    And  Jesus  through  his 

186 


angel  communicated  the  revelation  to  his  servant 

2  John  who  bore  witness  to  all  things  that  he  saw, 
to  the  word  spoken  by  God  and  the  testimony  given 

3  by  Jesus  Christ,  Blessed  is  he  who  reads  and 
they  who  listen  to  the  reading  of  this  prophecy  and 
lay  to  heart  what  is  here  recorded,  for  the  time  of 
its  fulfilment  is  near. 

With  these  words  John  introduces  his  book 
to  the  Christian  public  of  his  day.  Title  and 
preface  are  combined  in  one  paragraph.  Prob- 
ably this  introductory  statement  was  prefixed 
after  the  rest  of  the  book  had  been  completed 
and  shortly  before  it  was  given  to  the  messenger 
for  delivery  to  the  different  congregations 
addressed.  A  more  fitting  preface  could  hardly 
be  imagined.  The  opening  sentences  set  before 
the  eye  of  the  reader  the  controlling  interest 
of  the  whole  book,  which  is  specifically  designed 
to  cheer  and  strengthen  the  Asiatic  Christians 
of  that  day  to  endure  patiently  both  present 
and  impending  afflictions.  John  assures  them 
that  the  end  of  evil  days  is  near.  He  is  confident 
that  through  sudden  intervention  by  the  heav- 
enly powers  the  present  period  of  distress  will 
be  brought  to  an  early  close. 

The  ground  of  hope  is  clearly  stated.  God, 
Christ,  and  an  angelic  assistant  have  united  in 


i88 


The  Revelation  oj  John 


Warnings  to  the  Churches 


189 


the  work  of  revealing  to  John  a  picture  of 
coming  deliverance.  Now  he  is  qualified  to 
communicate  this  heavenly  information  to  his 
fellow-Christians.  Strengthened  by  the  hope 
which  his  recent  experiences  have  inspired  with- 
in his  own  breast,  he  pronounces  a  blessing  upon 
everyone  who  will  show  sufficient  interest  in  the 
book  to  bring  it  to  the  attention  of  others  by 
reading  it  aloud  at  Christian  gatherings.  Those 
who  listen  are  also  promised  a  blessing,  provided 
they  are  willing  to  accept  as  confidently  as  John 
does  the  future  program  outlined  in  his  book. 

Thus  John  regards  his  message  as  both  a 
revelation  (vs.  i)  and  a  prophecy  (vs.  3).  It  is 
a  revelation  because  he  believes  it  to  contain 
superhuman  wisdom  disclosed  to  him  from 
heaven.  He  has  acquired  information  in  visions ; 
he  saw  and  therefore  he  knows.  In  bearing 
witness  to  truth  that  has  been  thus  marvelously 
revealed,  he  feels  amply  justified  in  forecasting 
future  events  and  in  requiring  that  his  readers 
regulate  their  conduct  according  to  his  de- 
mands. In  assuming  this  comprehensive  r61e 
John  undertakes  to  discharge  the  functions  of 
both  seer  and  prophet. 

The  prophet  was  a  familiar  figure  among  the 
early  Christians,  a  fact  not  always  appreciated 


by  modems,  accustomed  as  they  are  to  apply 
the  term  more  exclusively  to  Old  Testament 
worthies.     The  most  explicit  account  of  the 
Christian  prophets  and  their  activities  is  given 
by  Paul  in  the  first  letter  to  the  Corinthians. 
Among  those  Christians  who  exhibit  evidence 
of  possessing  a  unique  spiritual  endowment, 
prophets  occupy  the  place  of  honor  next  to 
apostles.'    Prophecy  was  a  spiritual  manifesta- 
tion especially  commended  by  Paul,  because  of 
the  beneficial  results  attending  the  exercise  of 
this  gift.    Under  the  prompting  of  the  Spirit 
the  prophet  uttered  words  of  hidden  wisdom  or 
exhortation  serving  to  edify  the  faithful  and 
convict  sinners.^    As  a  man  who  spoke  at  the 
behest  of  the  Spirit  he  was  given  the  right  of 
way  in  the  Christian  assemblies.    But  when  his 
neighbor  was  suddenly  moved  by  a  similar 
impulse  to  announce  a  revelation  made  to  him 
by  the  Spirit,  the  former  speaker  had  to  give 
place  to  his  brother-prophet.^    Corinth  was  not 
the  only  place  where  Christian  prophets  were 
to  be  found.    On  one  occasion  they  were  present 
at  Antioch  in  Syria,  having  come  thither  from 
Jerusalem.   Among  them  was  a  certain  Agabus, 


'I  Cor.  12:4-11,  27-30. 
•I  Cor.  14:1-6,  24!. 


*I  Cor.  14:^9-33. 


II 


IQO 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Warnings  to  the  Churches 


191 


who  predicted  an  approaching  famine  and  also 
announced  that  Paul  would  be  apprehended  by 
the  Jews  at  Jerusalem.  On  each  of  these  occa- 
sions the  power  of  foresight  on  the  part  of 
Agabus  was  credited  to  the  presence  of  the 
Spirit.^ 

John  apparently  belonged  to  this  well- 
recognized  class  of  prophets^  to  be  found  in 
many  early  Christian  communities.  From  time 
to  time  as  the  Spirit  came  upon  them  they 
uttered  forceful  words  of  warning  or  encourage- 
ment in  the  meetings  of  the  congregation.  But 
John's  circumstances  made  it  impossible  for 
him  to  address  his  brethren  in  person.  If  they 
were  still  to  benefit  by  his  advice  he  must  adopt 
an  indirect  method  of  instruction,  committing 
to  writing  his  revelations  and  predictions  to  be 
read  by  another  in  his  absence.  Apparently  he 
,  was  aware  of  the  danger  that  the  written  word 
read  aloud  to  the  congregation  by  a  third  party 
might  seem  far  less  forceful  than  the  personal 
utterance  of  the  enthusiastic  prophet  speaking 
under  the  manifest  unction  of  the  Spirit's  power. 
Therefore  at  the  outset  he  sought  to  impress 
upon  those  who  read  and  those  who  listened 

'Acts  11:27  f.;  2i:iof.;  see  also  13:1;  15:32. 
"This  is  implied  also  in  Rev.  19:10;  22:9. 


that  the  authority  of  heaven  was  behind  his 
message,  and  that,  though  written,  it  was  a  truly 
prophetic  word  emanating  from  one  who  had 
shared  in  full  those  visions  and  revelations 
which  were  the  privilege  of  the  Spirit-filled 
prophet. 

n.      GREETINGS   TO   THE   READERS    (1:4-8) 

1 : 4  John  to  the  seven  churches  in  Asia:  Grace  and 
peace  be  to  you  from  the  one  who  is  and  who  was 
and  who  is  coming^  and  from  the  seven  spirits 

5  that  are  before  his  throne;  and  from  Jesus  Christ 
the  faithful  witness,  the  first-born  of  the  dead  and 
the  ruler  of  the  kings  of  the  earth.  To  him  who 
loves  us  and  who  has  cleansed  us  of  our  sins  with 

6  his  blood  and  made  us  a  kingdom  of  priests  for 
his  God  and  Father,  to  him  be  the  glory  and  the 
power  throughout  eternity.    Amen, 

7  Look,  he  comes  upon  the  clouds  and  every  eye 
shall  see  him,  even  those  who  pierced  him,  and  all 
the  tribes  of  the  earth  shall  mourn  over  him. 
Verily,  Amen, 

8  /  am  the  Alpha  and  the  Omega,  says  the  Lord 
God,  the  one  who  is  and  who  was  and  who  is 
coming,  the  Almighty, 

When  John  sent  a  written  message  to  his 
fellow-sufferers  he  was   following   a    custom 


192 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Warnings  to  the  Churches 


193 


I 


already  familiar  to  Christians.  From  the  first, 
adherents  of  the  new  religious  movement  had 
shown  a  deep  interest  in  the  common  welfare. 
When  a  community  was  overtaken  by  trouble 
neighboring  Christians  frequently  expressed 
keen  interest  in  the  well-being  of  their  afficted 
brethren.  Sometimes  a  prominent  leader  would 
visit  the  churches  in  distress,  but  in  cases  where 
a  personal  visit  was  impossible  a  written  com- 
munication would  be  dispatched.  The  best- 
known  examples  of  this  practice  are  the  Pauline 
letters  written  to  different  Christian  groups  at 
times  when  the  apostle  found  it  impracticable 
to  go  in  person  to  the  scene  of  the  trouble. 

Similarly  John  resorted  to  letter-writing. 
He  begins  with  the  customary  form  of  Christian 
address,  admirably  illustrated  in  the  Pauline 
epistles,  greeting  the  recipients  with  the  familiar 
wish  that  the  favor  and  peace  of  heaven  may 
rest  upon  them.  But  John's  missive  is  far  less 
direct  and  personal  than  are  the  letters  of  Paul. 
In  fact  Revelation  is  a  letter  only  in  its  formal 
introduction  and  conclusion,  while  in  content 
it  is  a  collection  of  prophetic  utterances  regard- 
ing current  and  impending  events,  such  as  the 
prophetic  exhorter  might  have  delivered  orally, 
though  less  systematically  organized,  at  various 


times  when  moved  by  the  Spirit  to  speak  in  the 
presence  of  the  congregations. 

The  source  of  heavenly  favor  and  blessing 
for   Christians   is   declared   to   be   threefold: 
(i)  God,  (2)  his  seven  attendant  spirits,  and 
(3)  Jesus  Christ.    But  so  simple  a  statement  of 
the  matter  is  not  to  be  expected  from  the 
prophet,  whose  exalted  state  of  feehng  demands 
more  eloquent  language.    Accordingly  God  is 
called  "the  one  who  is  and  who  was  and  who  is 
coming."    This  combination  of  words  served  to 
remind  Christians  that  even  in  the  hour  of 
trial  their  hope  rested  in  a  deity  who  long  ago 
declared  himself  to  be  the  great  I  AM,  who  was 
still  unchangeable  in  his  omnipotence,  and  who 
was  soon  to  come  to  the  assistance  of  the  faith- 
ful, granting  them  a  complete  deliverance  from 
all  their  afilictions. 

Associated  with  God,  John  pictures  seven 
attendant  spirits,  variously  identified  in  sub- 
sequent contexts  as  the  seven  flaming  torches 
stationed  before  God's  throne  (4:5),  and  the 
seven  gleaming  eyes  of  the  lamb  which  go  forth 
over  the  earth  to  perform  God's  service  (5:6). 
Again,  probably  these  same  powers  are  the 
seven  angels  that  stand  before  God  ready  to  do 
his  bidding  (8:2).     This  concrete  manner  of 


194 


The  Revelation  oJJohn 


Warnings  to  the  Churches 


iQS 


describing  heavenly  agents  was  popular  with 
the  ancients,  whose  lively  imagination  readily 
pictured  divine  power  now  as  a  flame  of  fire, 
now  as  the  gleaming  eye  of  a  wonderful  lamb, 
or  again  as  an  angelic  being  made  after  the 
image  of  man.  John  distinguished  seven  of 
these  majestic  agencies  of  the  Almighty  ready 
to  show  grace  and  kindness  toward  the  aflOiicted 
Christians. 

A  third  source  of  heavenly  favor  is  Jesus 
Christ,  whose  name  calls  forth  from  John  a 
series  of  eloquent  phrases.  As  a  result  of  Jesus' 
self-sacrificing  earthly  career,  ending  in  his 
death  upon  the  cross,  he  has  become  the  model 
"faithful  witness,''  whose  example  is  to  be 
emulated  by  his  persecuted  followers.  He  also 
has  a  still  greater  distinction.  The  appearance 
to  the  disciples  after  his  crucifixion  had  produced 
among  Christians  a  general  belief  that  he  had 
been  liberated  from  the  lower  world  where  the 
dead  dwell  and  had  ascended  to  heaven,  thereby 
becoming  the  first-born  of  the  dead.  Moreover, 
the  authority  which  he  now  possesses  as  the 
heavenly  Messiah  makes  him  virtually  the  ruler 
over  all  the  kings  of  the  earth,  although  the  full 
display  of  his  regal  glory  before  the  eyes  of 
men  is  still  to  occur  when  in  the  near  future  he 


i 


suddenly  appears  coming  upon  the  clouds  of 
heaven. 

Mention  of  the  career  of  Jesus  gives  John 
occasion  to  exclaim  that  eternal  glory  and  honor 
are  due  Christ  for  what  he  has  already  accom- 
plished on  behalf  of  Christians.  In  the  first 
place  he  has  made  a  wonderful  demonstration 
of  his  love  in  providing  cleansing  from  sins. 
The  cleansing  effect  of  blood  shed  by  the  victim 
offered  in  sacrifice  strongly  appealed  to  John's 
imagination  as  it  did  to  the  imagination  of 
many  of  his  Jewish,  gentile,  and  Christian  con- 
temporaries. It  was  a  normal  procedure  in 
those  days  when  animal  sacrifice  was  common, 
and  when  mart3n*dom  seemed  imminent  for 
Christians,  to  view  Jesus'  death  as  an  especial 
proof  of  his  love  and  to  represent  him  as  a 
sacrificial  lamb  whose  blood  washed  away  the 
sins  of  believers,  themselves  ready  to  pour  out 
their  own  blood  if  need  be  in  loyalty  to  his  name. 
Those  were  bloody  times,  when  a  blood-phrased 
theology  was  natural,  if  not  indeed  indispen- 
sable, to  religious  thinking. 

Praise  is  due  Christ  for  a  further  work.  He 
has  done  more  for  Christians  than  merely  to 
remove  their  sins.  He  has  constituted  them  a 
new  kingdom  belonging  to  his  God  and  Father. 


196 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Warnings  to  the  Churches 


\ 
1^' 


Their  present  inferior  position  in  the  Roman 
Empire  stands  in  sharp  contrast  to  their  true 
dignity  and  authority  as  members  of  the  King- 
dom of  God.  John  applies  to  Christians  the 
fulfilment  of  a  promise  originally  made  to  the 
Hebrews  after  their  deliverance  from  Egypt. 
If  the  latter  had  faithfully  kept  God's  com- 
mandments, they  would  have  become  a  holy 
nation  wherein  every  individual  would  have 
been  of  true,  priestly  dignity.'  John  finds  this 
promise  finally  fulfilled  in  the  case  of  the 
Christians  who,  through  their  attachment  to 
Christ,  have  become  the  holy  nation  of  God's 
choice.  In  the  midst  of  their  present  humilia- 
tion and  suffering  they  may  console  themselves 
with  the  assurance  of  their  royal  dignity  as 
citizens  of  the  Kingdom  of  God. 

How  could  John  call  Christ  ''ruler  of  the 
kings  of  the  earth"  and  designate  Christians  as 
the  "kingdom"  of  God  in  view  of  the  condi- 
tions actually  existing  at  that  time?  Jesus 
himself  had  been  crucified  by  the  Romans,  and 
severe  pressure  was  now  being  brought  to  bear 
upon  his  disciples  to  compel  their  submission 
to  pagan  customs.  In  comparison  with  the 
powers  working  against  them,  their  ability  to 

»Exod.  19:6. 


197 


assert  their  rightful  dignity  must  have  seemed 
hopelessly  inadequate  to  the  situation.     But 
John  had  a  solution  for  this  difficulty.    In  fact 
his  controlling  purpose  throughout  the  book  is 
to  convince  his  fellow-Christians  that  the  day 
of  their  deliverance  is  at  hand,  when  the  powers 
of  the  pagan  worid  will  be  destroyed  to  make 
way  for  Christ's  rule  upon  earth.    When  this 
is  accomplished  his  disciples  will  be  elevated 
to  their  rightful  place  in  the  new  order  of  things. 
Under  the  inspiration  of  this  confidence  Old 
Testament  phraseology  springs  to  John's  lips  as 
he  boldly  exclaims,  "Look !    He  comes  upon  the 
clouds."    His  advent  is  so  near  that  John  can 
almost  see  it  as  he  writes.    Christ  will  appear 
so  literally  and  realistically  that  he  will  be 
manifest  to  everybody's  gaze.    Christians  will 
greet  him  with  great  joy,  while  sorrow  will  lay 
hold  of  his  adversaries.    Well  may  they  mourn, 
since  his  appearing  seals  their  doom. 

So  certain  is  John  of  victory  that  he  closes 
his  message  of  greeting  by  citing  God  himself 
in  support  of  this  hope  (vs.  8).  Using  as 
symbols  of  completeness  the  first  and  the  last 
letter  of  the  Greek  alphabet,  God  declares  him- 
self to  be  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  all 
things.    He  has  launched  the  world  upon  its 


198 


The  Revelation  of  John 


career  and  the  last  chapter  in  its  history  will 
also  be  of  his  making.  Christ's  triumphal  return 
will  be  but  the  beginning  of  God's  final  dem- 
onstration of  authority.  Similarly  Paul  had 
viewed  the  return  of  Christ  as  only  a  temporary 
stage  in  history,  leading  up  to  a  time  when  all 
things  would  be  finally  placed  under  the  direct 
control  of  God.'  John  proposes  a  similar  pro- 
gram. Christ  is  coming  to  establish  his  rule 
upon  earth  for  one  thousand  years,  but  this 
will  be  only  a  preliminary  stage  of  God's 
victory.  The  millennial  rule  of  Christ  is 
finally  to  be  displaced  by  the  establishment 
of  the  new  Jerusalem,  where  God  erects  his 
tabernacle  among  men  and  dwells  with  them 
eternally.^ 

With  these  words  of  greeting  John  assures 
his  readers  that  their  hope  of  deliverance  rests 
upon  a  firm  basis.  All  the  powers  of  heaven, 
including  even  God  himself,  have  decreed  the 
speedy  end  of  the  evil  world  and  the  glorious 
triumph  of  the  Christian  cause.  Only  one 
further  preliminary  matter  remains  to  be  con- 
sidered. Is  John  adequately  qualified  to  convey 
to  his  fellow-sufferers  this  message  of  hope? 
In  order  to  reassure  them  on  this  point  he 

« I  Cor.  15 :  28.  '  Rev.,  chaps.  20  f . 


i 


Warnings  to  the  Churches  199 

narrates    the    special    experiences    by    which 
heaven  has  equipped  him  for  his  task. 

m.      JOHN'S  PROPHETIC  EQUIPMENT   (1:9-20) 

1:9  /,  John,  your  brother  and  joint  partner  in  the 
affliction,  kingdom,  and  patient  endurance  in- 
volved  in  following  Jesus,  was  in  the  island  called 
Patmos  in  order  to  receive  the  word  of  God  and 

10  the  testimony  of  Jesus,  On  the  Lord's  day  I  was 
in  the  Spirit  and  I  heard  a  loud,  trumpet-like 

1 1  voice  behind  me  saying:  What  you  see  record  in 
a  book  and  send  it  to  the  seven  churches,  to 
Ephesus  and  to  Smyrna  a^td  to  Pergamum  and 
to  Thyatira  and  to  Sardis  and  to  Philadelphia 
and  to  Laodicea. 

12  Then  I  turned  round  to  see  whose  voice  it  was 
that  was  speaking  with  me,  and  thereupon  I  saw 

13  seven  gold  lampstands  and  amid  the  lampstands 
a  being  resembling  a  man  wearing  a  garment 
reaching  to  the  feet  and  girded  about  the  breast 

14  with  a  belt  of  gold.  His  head  with  its  white  hair 
resembled  snow-white  wool  and  his  eyes  flashed 

15  like  a  flame  of  fire.  His  feet  glowed  like  molten 
bronze  when  at  white  heat  in  a  furnace  and  his 
voice  sounded  like  the  roaring  of  mighty  breakers. 

16  In  his  right  hand  he  held  seven  stars,  a  sharp 
double-edged  sword  projected  from  his  mouth,  and 


200 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Warnings  to  the  Churches 


20I 


his  face  was  like  the  sun  when  it  shines  in  full 
strength. 

17  And  when  I  saw  him  I  fell  at  his  feet  as  if 
deady  but  laying  his  right  hand  upon  me  he  said: 
Do  not  be  afraid;  I  am  the  First  and  the  Last, 

18  and  the  Living  One.  True  I  died,  but  see  I  am 
now  alive  for  ail  eternity,  and  I  hold  the  keys 
originally  possessed  by  Death  and  Hades, 

19  Therefore  record  your  visions,  which  pertain 
both  to  present  conditions  and  to  subsequent  events 

20  that  are  soon  to  occur.  The  mysterious  signifi- 
cance of  the  seven  stars  which  you  saw  in  my 
right  hand  and  of  the  seven  gold  lampstands  is  as 
follows:  The  seven  stars  represent  angels  of  the 
seven  churches  and  the  seven  lampstands  repre- 
sent the  seven  churches. 

Much  discussion  has  revolved  about  the 
question  of  the  author's  identity.  He  refers  to 
himself  only  four  times  and  then  simply  as  a 
Christian  by  the  name  of  John  who,  apart  from 
his  experiences  as  an  apocalyptic  seer,  claims 
no  distinction  other  than  that  of  sharing  the 
afflictions  suffered  by  his  persecuted  brethren. 
Although  the  name  was  a  familiar  one,  this 
particular  John  would  undoubtedly  be  well 
known  to  the  readers  through  his  past  asso- 
ciation with  one  or  more  of  the  Christian  groups 


to  whom  he  wrote.    In  later  times  a  desire  for 
more  complete  information  about  him  led  to 
various  conjectures  regarding  his  identity.    In 
the  second  century,  when  pressure  of  circum- 
stances induced  Christians  to  seek  apostolic 
authority   for   early    Christian   writings,    the 
author  of  Revelation  was  easily  assumed  to  have 
been  John  the  Apostle.    The  first  explicit  state- 
ment to  this  effect  is  found  in  Justin's  Dialogue 
(81.  4),  a  book  written  soon  after  the  middle  of 
the  second  century.    Early  in  the  third  century, 
when  the  apostle  John  had  come  to  be  regarded 
by  universal  consent  as  author  of  a  gospel  and 
three  epistles,  certain  discerning  Christian  read- 
ers began  to  note  striking  dissimilarities  in 
thinking  and  style  between  those  documents 
and  the  Book  of  Revelation.    In  some  quarters 
these  observations  led  to  doubt  regarding  the 
apostolic  origin  of  Revelation.    Dionysius,  in  the 
third  century,  knew  Christians  who  alleged  that 
the  book  had  been  fraudulently  ascribed  to  the 
apostle.  Dionysius,  however,  was  more  reserved 
in  his  skepticism.     He  expressed  the  opinion 
that  the  author's  real  name  was  John,  not, 
however,  the  apostle  but  some  otherwise  un- 
known Christian  of  Asia.^ 

'  Eusebius  Hist.  YD,,  xxv.  16. 


202 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Modem  investigation  is  in  general  agree- 
ment with  the  conclusion  of  Dionysius,  nor  can 
it  materially  supplement  his  verdict.     Today 
one  may  cite  certain  historical  data  pointing  to 
the  martyrdom  of  the  apostle  John  while  still 
in  Palestine  along  with  his  brother  James  before 
70  A.D.'     In  this  event  he  manifestly  cannot 
have  written  Revelation  or  the  Fourth  Gospel 
or  the  so-called  Johannine  Epistles.     It  has 
sometimes  been  surmised  that  the  author  of 
Revelation  was  a  certain  Asian  presbyter  John, 
who  is  mentioned  occasionally  in  early  Chris- 
tian tradition.     But  there  is  no  substantial 
evidence  that  this  individual  composed  the  Book 
of  Revelation.    All  that  may  be  said  with  any 
degree  of  assurance  is  that  its  author  was  a 
Christian  of  Asia  bearing  the  familiar  name  of 
John.    His  remarkable  lack  of  skill  in  the  use 
of  the  Greek  language,  together  with  the  pre- 
dominantly Jewish  element  in  his  thinking, 
makes  it  reasonably  certain  that  he  was  a  Jew 
who  had  been  converted  to  Christianity.    Also 
as  a  Christian  he  belonged  to  the  group  known 
as    prophets,    who    enjoyed    the    charismatic 
endowment  of  the  Spirit  which  was  believed  to 

«For  particulars  see  James  Moffatt,   Introdttdion   to   the 
Literature  of  the  New  Testament,  pp.  602  fif. 


Warnings  to  the  Churches 


203 


guarantee  the  validity  of  his  utterance  and 
render  unnecessary  any  other  credentials  to 
substantiate  his  message.  On  this  ground  alone 
he  declared  his  Revelation  to  be  ''the  word  of 
God  and  the  testimony  of  Jesus." 

John  demanded  to  be  heard  simply  on  the 
ground  of  his  prophetic  equipment  as  an  apoca- 
lyptic seer.    The  experience  which  inspired  this 
particular  expression  of  his  prophetic  powers 
had  come  to  him  on  Patmos,  a  small  desolate 
island  lying  off  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  about 
sixty  miles  southwest  of  Ephesus.    Apparently 
the  immediate  occasion  of  his  visit  to  Patmos 
was  either  banishment  or  flight  necessitated  by 
his  loyalty  to  the  Christian  faith.     Hence  he 
could  remark  that  he  shared  the  tribulations  of 
his  brethren  as  well  as  their  confident  and 
patient  expectation  of  Christ's  return  to  inau- 
gurate the  new  messianic  kingdom  upon  earth. 
One  Sunday,  while  under  the  emotional  agita- 
tion induced  by  intense  strain,  John  suddenly 
experienced  one  of  those  elevated  states  of  feel- 
ing characteristic  of  the  ecstatic  life  of  the 
apocalyptic  seer.    While  thus  ''in  the  Spirit" 
he  received  a  summons  to  write  a  book  for  the 
admonition  and  encouragement  of  his  suffering 
brethren.    After  this  experience  it  seemed  to 


204 


The  Revelation  of  John 


him  that  the  real  occasion  of  his  presence  in 
Patmos  had  been  no  mere  exigency  of  the  perse- 
cution but  a  divine  intention  that  through  this 
means  he  might  receive  from  God  and  from 
Christ  instructions  for  his  companions  in  misery 
(1:2).  Following  the  example  of  his  apocalyptic 
predecessors^  John  is  to  put  in  writing  the 
heavenly  wisdom  disclosed  to  him  in  the  vision. 
When  writing  John  seems  to  regard  his 
residence  in  Patmos  as  a  thing  of  the  past. 
Therefore  it  is  sometimes  assumed  that  the 
book  was  composed,  or  at  least  completed,  at 
some  other  place.  Perhaps  the  place  of  com- 
position was  Ephesus  or  its  vicinity,  since  this 
is  the  first  Christian  community  to  which  the 
prophecy  was  to  be  read.  Thence  it  was  to  be 
sent  northward  along  the  coast,  first  to  Smyrna 
and  then  to  Pergamum.  At  this  point  the 
messenger  turned  inland,  following  the  main 
highways  of  travel  and  visiting  in  turn  Thyatira, 
Sardis,  Philadelphia,  and  Laodicea.  Just  why 
these  seven  churches  are  chosen  to  the  exclusion 
of  those  in  other  cities  lying  either  in  the  direct 
route  of  the  messenger  or  in  contiguous  terri- 
tory is  not  perfectly  clear.     The  church  at 

*Dan.  8:26;  12:4;  I  En.  82:1;  104:11;  Asmp.   M.   1:16; 
10:11;  II :i;  IV  Ezra  12:37;  14:26,45-47. 


Warnings  to  the  Churches 


I 


205 


Colossae  is  ignored,  and  in  all  probabiUty  the 
neighboring  cities  of  Hierapolis,  Tralles,  and 
Magnesia  already  contained  recognized  groups 
of  Christians  who  would  hardly  escape  the 
menace  of  the  imperial  cult,  and  to  whom  the 
reading  of  John's  book  would  not  have  been 
inappropriate.  One  cannot  refrain  from  sus- 
pecting that  the  author's  fondness  for  sacred 
numbers,  among  which  seven  was  an  especial 
favorite,  induced  him  to  select  just  seven  cities 
as  the  seat  of  those  Christian  congregations  to 
"  which  his  prophecy  should  be  delivered. 

The  figure  appearing  to  John  in  his  vision  is 
the  glorified  Christ.    The  details  of  the  picture 
are  described  in  the  familiar  terminology  of  Old 
Testament   and   Jewish  apocalyptic  writings. 
The   seven   gold   lampstands   remind   one   of 
Zechariah's  vision  of  the  gold  candlestick  bear- 
ing seven  lamps.'     John's  imagery  was  cer- 
tainly influenced  by  the  seven-branched  gold 
candlestick  of  Jewish  ritual.*    Yet  he  employed 
seven  independent  lampstands  as  a  more  fitting 
figure  to  represent  the  seven  different  churches. 
The  description  of  Christ  as  a  "being  resem- 
bling a  man"  is  a  familiar  trait  of  Jewish  apoca- 
lyptic imagery  derived  from  the  phrase  "one 

'Zech.  4:2.  »Exod.  25:31  ff.;  37:i7ff. 


2o6 


The  Revelation  of  John 


like  unto  a  son  of  man,"  in  Dan.  7:13.    The 
long  robe  extending  to  the  feet  and  the  gold 
girdle  about  the  breast  are  features  of  royal  and 
high  priestly  attire  indicative  of  the  dignity 
belonging  to  the  heavenly  Christ.    In  apoca- 
lyptic imagery  white  hair  was  usually  a  char- 
acteristic of  God  himself,'  but  John  ascribes  it 
even  to  Christ.    The  flashing  eyes,  the  bronze 
feet,   and   the   terrible   voice   are   descriptive 
features  freely  reproduced  from  the  imagery 
of    Daniel    in    10:5  f.    Doubtless    John    had 
long  been  so  familiar  with  this  sort  of  apoca- 
lyptic scenery  that  the  language  came  to  him 
spontaneously.      As    he    later    explains    (vs. 
20),  the  seven  stars  in  Christ's  right  hand  are 
the  guardian  angels  of  the  seven  churches,  a 
form  of  imagery  easily  entertained  in  an  age 
when  belief  in  guardian  spirits  was  popular. 
The  picture  of  the  sword  projecting  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Messiah  is  a  realistic  reproduction 
of  similar  Jewish  language  usually  referring 
figuratively  to  the  spoken  word  of  God.*    But 
for  John  the  sword  m  Christ's  mouth  is  a  real 
weapon  with  which  he  will  one  day  slay  his 

»Dan.  7:9;  I  En.  46:1;  71:10- 
»E.g.,Isa.ii:4;49:2;Wisd.Sol.  i8:isf.;P».Sol.i7:a7,39; 

I  En.  62:^;  IV  Ezra  13:10. 


Warnings  to  the  Churches 


207 


j 


I 


■  J* 

1 


enemies  (19:15,  21).  A  shining  countenance 
was  also  a  current  figure  of  expression  for 
divine  favor  or  dignity  possessed  by  saints, 
angels,  or  God.' 

John  was  so  saturated  with  the  imagery  of 
Jewish  apocalyptic  that  his  description  of  the 
heavenly  Christ  inevitably  phrased  itself  in  this 
familiar  language.     At  the  same  time  it  is 
possible  that  current  gentile  notions  may  also 
have  exerted  some  subsidiary  influence  upon 
John's  thinking.    The  seven  lampstands  amid 
which  Christ  walked  might  easily  be  associated 
with  the  seven  planetary  deities  of  pagan  belief. 
In  fact  the  Jewish  historian  Josephus,  a  con- 
temporary of  John,  explicitly  asserts  that  the 
seven-branched  candlestick  of  Jewish  tradition 
supported  seven  lamps  ''in  imitation  of  the 
number  of  the  planets."*    The  seven  stars  in 
Christ's  right  hand  also  suggest  the  astral  idea 
of  a  specific  constellation  of  heavenly  powers. 
It  may  well  be  that  John  thus  phrased  his 
description  of  the  heavenly  Christ  in  order  to 
make  him  transcend  in  splendor  both  the  mes- 
sianic portraiture  of  Jewish  apocalyptic  and  the 
gentile  pictures  of  astral  powers. 

'Judg.  5:31;  I  En.  14:21;  51:4;  71:1;  89:22,  30. 
'Ant.  III.  vi.  7  (146);  vii.  7  (182);  War  V.  v.  5  (217). 


208 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Following  the  conventional  procedure  of  the 
apocalyptic  seer,  John  prostrated  himself  before 
the  heavenly  apparition  and  received  the  char- 
acteristic admonition  to  dismiss  his  fear.    But 
quite  new  is  the  assurance  that  Christ  himself 
is  an  almighty  being  who  guarantees  the  safety 
of  the  saints.    Essentially  the  same  language 
previously  used  of  God  (vs.  8)  is  here  applied 
to  Jesus.    He  too  is  eternal,  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  he  once  lived  as  a  mortal  upon 
earth.    Indeed,  his  triumphant  experiences  with 
death  and  the  lower  world  have  put  him  in 
permanent    possession  of  the  keys  of    those 
regions,  a  fact  which  insures  a  similar  victory 
for  his  followers,  however  numerous  may   be 
the  victims  of  the  persecutor.    In  this  connec- 
tion, as  again  in  Rev.  6:8,  Death  and  Hades 
are  personified  demonic  powers  in  control  of  the 
lower  world.    In  this  reference  to  the  successful 
combat  of  Jesus  with  the  gods  of  the  under- 
world, John  followed  a  type  of  thinking  aheady 
highly  prized  and  widely  prevalent,  especially 

in  gentile  circles. 

As  the  victor  over  Death  and  Hades,  the 
heavenly  Christ  commissions  John  to  write  an 
apocalypse.  The  purpose  of  these  revelatory 
visions  is  twofold,  namely,  to  interpret  present 


Warnings  to  the  Churches 


209 


conditions  and  to  predict  future  events.    John's 
first  duty,  therefore,  is  to  write  words  of  admo- 
nition and  comfort  to  the  seven  churches,  in 
order  that  their  members  may  be  warned  to 
prepare  for  the  impending  catastrophic  events 
with  which  the  greater  part  of  John's  revela- 
tion is  concerned.    But  even  in  the  prosaic  task 
of  giving  practical  admonitions  to  the  churches, 
an  appropriate  air  of  apocalyptic  mystery  is 
maintained  by  employing  the  imagery  of  the 
seven  stars  and  the  seven  lampstands.     In  fact, 
John  is  commanded  to  address  his  message,  not 
directly  to  the  churches,  but  to  the  several  angels' 
represented  by  the  stars  in  Christ's  right  hand. 
What  is  meant  by  this  language?    While 
one  may  not  hope  to  unravel  completely  an 
apocalyptic  mystery,  the  notion  of  sending  a 
commimication  to  the  angels  of  the  respective 
churches  would  be  easily  comprehensible  for 
John  and  his  readers.     At  that  time  belief  in 
guardian   spirits  was  widely  popular  among 
Jews,  Christians,  and  pagans.    These  heavenly 
protectors  were  thought  to  have  a  care  not  only 
for    individuals    but    also    for    nations.      In 
Daniel,^  Michael,  as  the  angelic  champion  of 
the  people  of  Israel,  engages  in  conflict  with 

'Rev. 2:1,8, 12, 18;  3:1,7,14.        'Dan.  10:13,  2of.;  12:1. 


2IO 


The  Revelation  of  John 


similar  angelic  representatives  of  Persia  and 
Greece.  Various  gentile  guilds  also  often 
claimed  the  protection  of  patron  divinities.  It 
was  quite  natural  for  John  to  assume  that  the 
several  groups  of  Christian  believers  to  whom  he 
wrote  enjoyed  the  ministrations  of  their  respec- 
tive guardian  spirits  who  were  in  a  way  conceived 
to  be  a  heavenly  double  of  the  earthly  institu- 
tion. And  it  was  peculiarly  appropriate  that  a 
Christian  prophet,  who  elsewhere  clearly  inti- 
mates his  own  equality  with  the  angels  (19:  lo; 
22:8f.),  should  address  his  message  to  this 
heavenly  guardian  who  of  course  would  be 
present  in  the  assembly  to  hear  the  reading  of 
John's  book.  Perhaps  John  also  assumed  that 
by  addressing  the  angel  he  would  more  effect- 
ively enlist  the  latter's  services  in  impressing 
the  people  with  the  seriousness  of  the  message. 
On  the  other  hand  it  is  possible  that  John  used 
this  form  of  expression  merely  to  give  an  added 
tone  of  solemnity  to  his  admonitions. 

rV.      MESSAGE  TO  EPHESUS   (2:1-7) 

2:1        To  the  guardian  angel  of  the  church  at  Ephesus 
write: 

He  who  holds  the  seven  stars  in  his  right  hand 
and  walks  amid  the  seven  gold  lampstands  speaks 


Warnings  to  the  Churches 


211 


2  thus:  I  am  aware  of  your  activities — your  strenu- 
ous labor  and  your  patient  endurance.  I  know 
that  you  are  unable  to  tolerate  wicked  men  and 
that  you  tested  those  who  call  themselves  apostles, 
when  they  are  not,  and  found  them  to  be  impostors. 

3  You  display  patient  endurance  and  have  borne 
up  under  afflictions  incurred  by  your  loyalty  to 
my  name,  nor  has  your  zeal  for  my  cause  abated. 

4  But  I  hold  it  against  you  that  you  have 
abandoned  your  former  practice  of  showing  love 

5  for  the  brethren.  Therefore  call  to  mind  the  high 
station  from  which  you  have  fallen,  repent,  and 
resume  your  former  activities.  Otherwise  I  am 
coming  to  you  to  remove  your  lampstand  from  its 

6  place,  unless  you  repent.  But  you  have  to  your 
credit  the  fact  that  you  hate  the  activities  of  the 
Nicolaitans,  whose  doings  I  also  hate. 

7  Let  him  who  has  an  ear  hear  what  the  Spirit 
says  to  the  churches:  To  the  one  who  conquers 
I  will  grant  the  privilege  of  eating  food  from  the 
tree  of  life  which  is  in  the  paradise  of  God. 

The  message  to  the  Christian  community  at 
Ephesus  is  presented  in  genuinely  apocalyptic 
form  as  a  direct  communication  from  Christ. 
Though  formally  addressed  to  the  guardian 
angel  of  the  church,  it  is  designed  primarily  for 
the  instruction  of  the  members.    In  the  first 


212 


The  Revelation  of  John 


place  the  Ephesians  are  commended  for  their 
fidelity  to  Christianity  in  times  of  persecution 
and  for  their  prompt  rejection  of  false  apostles. 
In  the  early  days  of  spontaneous  Christian 
leadership  such  charlatans  sometimes  preyed 
upon  innocent  Christian  communities.  The 
earliest  missionaries  who  went  from  place  to 
place  preaching  the  gospel  received  the  name 
of  apostles.  At  first  this  group  included  the 
Twelve,  and  certain  other  outstanding  leaders, 
like  James  the  brother  of  Jesus,  Paul,  and 
Barnabas.  As  a  reward  for  their  self-sacrificing 
service  these  evangelists  were  usually  granted 
free  entertainment  when  visiting  the  churches.' 
In  the  course  of  time  death  gradually  removed 
the  original  apostolic  leaders  and  a  new  genera- 
tion of  traveling  preachers  arose  to  claim  the 
title  and  prerogatives  of  their  predecessors.  As 
the  number  of  those  aspiring  to  apostoHc 
privileges  increased,  it  sometimes  happened  that 
selfish  and  indolent  individuals  pretended  to  be 
traveling  missionaries  when  in  reality  they  were 
merely  taking  advantage  of  the  generosity  of 
indulgent  Christian  communities.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  abuse  the  churches  were  com- 
pelled to  discriminate  between  those  persons 

«1 001.9:3-14. 


Warnings  to  the  Churches 


213 


who  were  genuine  missionaries  of  the  apostolic 
t)^e  and  those  who  were  mere  impostors.  We 
do  not  know  how  the  Ephesians  proceeded  to 
expose  the  character  of  the  false  apostles  who 
sought  to  prey  upon  their  generosity.  The 
DidachCy^  a  Christian  document  of  the  early 
second  century,  prescribes  that  every  apostle 
be  received  as  the  Lord,  but  if  his  visit  is  pro- 
longed beyond  a  single  day,  or  at  most  two 
days,  he  is  to  be  regarded  as  an  impostor. 

John  censures  the  Ephesians  for  only  one 
defect.  The  early  Christians  placed  great 
emphasis  upon  acts  of  brotherly  love  as  ex- 
pressed in  hospitality  and  care  for  the  needy 
members  of  the  community.  But  as  the  group 
of  believers  increased  in  numbers  and  the  more 
conventional  type  of  life  was  adopted,  the 
spontaneity  of  its  earlier  charitable  activities 
tended  to  disappear.  Apparently  this  had  been 
the  experience  of  the  Ephesian  church,  and 
John  regards  it  as  a  serious  defect  needing  im- 
mediate correction.  Let  the  Ephesians  return 
.  to  the  primitive  simplicity  and  charitable  prac- 
tices of  earlier  days  if  they  wish  to  escape  the 
condemnation  of  Christ  at  his  coming.  Inci- 
dentally John  approves  of  their  treatment  of 


214 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Warnings  to  the  Churches 


215 


the  Nicolaitans,  whose  perversity  is  more 
specifically  described  in  the  letter  to  the  church 
at  Pergamum  (2 :  14). 

In  a  manner  befitting  apocalyptic  style,  the 
message  to  the  Ephesians  closes  with  an  oracular 
utterance  repeated  at  the  end  of  each  letter. 
It  addresses  itself  particularly  to  those  who 
have  the  capacity  for  receiving  instructions 
from  the  Spirit.  At  the  outset  Christ  had  been 
speaking,  but  this  final  admonition  is  uttered 
by  the  Spirit.  For  the  apostolic  seer  revela- 
tions from  Christ  and  revelations  from  the 
Spirit  are  essentially  identical.  The  blessings 
of  paradise  are  held  out  as  a  reward  of  con- 
tinued fidelity  during  the  strenuous  happenings 
of  the  last  times.  This  representation  belongs 
to  the  customary  imagery  of  Jewish  apoca- 
lyptic, which  pictures  the  new  messianic  age  as 
a  return  in  heightened  splendor  and  privilege 
of  the  blessings  of  the  first  paradise. 

V.      MESSAGE  TO  SMYRNA  (2:8-11) 

2:8       Also  to  the  gimrdian  angel  of  the  church  at 
Smyrna  write: 

The  First  and  the  Last,  he  who  died  and  came 
to  life  again,  speaks  thus:  I  am  aware  of  your 
tribulation  and  worldly  poverty,  but  in  reality  you 


II 


9  are  rich,  I  am  aware  of  the  calumny  heaped  upon 
you  by  those  who  call  themselves  Jews,  when  they 
are  not,  but  in  reality  are  a  synagogue  of  Satan, 
io  Do  not  be  afraid  of  the  sufferings  that  are  about 
to  overtake  you.  True,  the  devil  is  about  to  throw 
certain  of  your  number  into  prison  in  order  that 
you  may  be  tested  and  suffer  a  ten-day  tribula- 
tion. Prove  faithful  even  if  it  leads  to  death,  and 
I  will  reward  you  with  the  crown  of  eternal  life. 

Let  him  who  has  an  ear  hear  what  the  Spirit 
says  to  the  churches:  He  who  conquers  will  suffer 
no  harm  from  the  second  death. 

The  initial  phrase,  "the  First  and  the  Last," 
identifies  Christ  as  the  speaker  (1:17).  The 
Christians  of  Smyrna  receive  no  word  of  criti- 
cism but  only  encouragement  to  fidelity  and 
promises  of  reward.  They  have  already  endured 
persecution  which  apparently  has  resulted  in 
the  loss  of  worldly  goods  through  confiscation 
or  otherwise,  for  which  they  are  promised 
heavenly  riches.  Their  troubles  seem  to  have 
arisen  especially  from  the  hostile  action  of  their 
Jewish  neighbors.  It  is  not  difiicult  to  under- 
stand Jewish  animosity  toward  the  Christian 
movement.  The  preachers  of  the  new  religion 
not  only  attempted,  and  with  some  success,  to 
draw  converts  from  the  Jewish  community,  but 


il 


t  f 


2l6 


The  Revelation  of  John 


they  also  taught  that  Christians  alone  inter- 
preted the  Old  Testament  correctly  and  were 
the  only  true  perpetuators  of  genuine  Hebrew 
religion.  Moreover,  Christians  won  over  to 
their  cause  certain  Gentiles  who  had  previously 
entertained  a  comparatively  high  estimate  of 
Judaism,  and  who  had  been  regular  attendants 
on  the  services  of  the  synagogue.  Under  these 
circumstances  bitter  enmity  between  Jews  and 
Christians  in  gentile  lands  was  inevitable. 

In  the  case  of  the  Smyrnean  church,  Jewish 
hostility  seems  to  have  expressed  itself  in  the 
form  of  slanderous  accusations  made  to  the 
gentile  authorities.  Just  as  the  enemies  of 
Jesus  are  represented  in  the  Gospels  as  per- 
suading Pilate  that  Jesus  was  a  menace  to  the 
good  order  of  the  Empire,  so  the  Jews  of  the 
Dispersion  probably  tried  to  make  it  appear 
that  Christians  were  dangerous  to  the  safety  of 
the  state.  Various  alleged  evidences  against 
them  could  be  cited.  In  announcing  the  immi- 
nent return  of  Christ  they  were  tacitly  pro- 
claiming the  early  downfall  of  the  Roman 
government.  Their  practice  of  coming  together 
in  a  secret  meeting  to  observe  the  Lord's  Supper 
was  a  further  occasion  of  suspicion.  And  as 
worship  of  the  ruler  became  increasingly  popular 


Warnings  to  the  Churches 


217 


in  Asia,  Jews  might  easily  suggest  to  the  author- 
ities that  Christians  were  not  entitled  to  the 
privilege  of  exemption  from  interference  now 
universally  accorded  to  the  Jewish  residents  of 
the  Empire." 

In  some  such  way  the  Jews  of  Smyrna  had 
been  instrumental  in  causing  trouble  to  the 
Christian  community,  and  on  this  ground  John 
brands  them  a  synagogue  of  Satan.  For  John, 
thoroughly  imbued  as  he  was  with  a  rich 
religious  heritage  from  Judaism,  the  true  Jewish 
faith  was  perpetuated  in  the  Christian  move- 
ment, and  those  Jews  who  refused  belief  in 
Christ  were  therefore  apostates  from  the  true 
faith.  They  no  longer  served  Jehovah,  but  had 
allowed  themselves  to  become  the  agents  of 
Satan.  According  to  apocalyptic  philosophy 
Satan  was  the  ultimate  source  of  e\il,  but  he 

'Josephus  {War  VII.  x.  i)  reports  that  when  the  Jews  of 
Alexandria  handed  over  to  the  Romans  their  Jewish  kinsmen,  the 
Sicarii,  who  had  fled  thither  after  the  revolt  in  Palestine,  the 
latter  were  called  upon  to  confess  Caesar's  lordship,  even  though 
this  confession  was  not  required  of  the  Jewish  residents  of  Alex- 
andria in  general  (see  above,  pp.  20  f .)  Apparently  the  with- 
drawal of  the  Jewish  community's  protection  from  the  Sicarii 
was  the  signal  for  the  Romans  to  demand  acknowledgment  of 
Caesar's  lordship.  It  is  quite  possible  that  Jewish  hostility 
toward  Christians  may  have  operated  in  a  similar  manner  to 
bring  about  a  demand  on  the  part  of  the  Romans  that  Christians 
worship  Caesar. 


i 


I  ill 


til 


218 


The  Revelation  of  John 


frequently  employed  human  agents  in  the  execu- 
tion of  his  designs.  Hence  John  beUeves  that 
the  devil  by  the  aid  of  local  assistants  in  Smyrna 
will  presently  bring  still  severer  affliction  upon 
the  church  of  that  place.  Some  of  its  members 
will  probably  be  cast  into  prison,  and  some  may 
even  be  put  to  death,  but  in  the  latter  event 
they  will  insure  for  themselves  the  brilliant 
crown  of  the  victor  in  the  life  to  come.  The 
statement  that  the  period  of  testing  will  endure 
ten  days  is  hardly  to  be  taken  literally.  The 
phrase  is  scriptural,  being  derived  from  Dan. 
1:14,  where  a  ten-day  tribulation  is  the  apoca- 
lyptist's  way  of  saying  a  brief  tribulation. 

In  the  exalted  refrain  which  closes  the  mes- 
sage the  Spirit  is  again  introduced  as  speaker, 
assuring  the  Smy means  that  triumphant  Chris- 
tians will  escape  all  the  terrors  of  the  second 
death.  This  terrible  event  is  to  overtake  sinners 
on  the  day  of  judgment  as  described  by  John 
in  a  later  portion  of  his  book  (20:6,  14  f.;  21 :8). 

VI.      MESSAGE  TO  PERGAMUM   (2:12-17) 

2:12        Also  to  the  guardian  angel  of  the  church  at 
Pergamum  write: 

He  who  is  equipped  with  the  sharp,  double- 
13  edged  sword  says:  I  know  where  you  reside.    It 


Warnings  to  the  Churches 


219 


is  in  tfte  city  where  Satan  has  his  throne.  Yet 
you  hold  fast  my  name  and  you  did  not  renounce 
your  belief  in  me  eoen  in  the  days  when  Antipas, 
my  true  witness,  was  put  to  death  among  you,  in 
the  city  where  Satan  resides, 

14  Nevertheless  I  hold  it  somewhat  against  you 
that  you  have  there  certain  persons  adhering  to 
precepts  like  those  of  Balaam  who  taught  Balak 
to  set  a  trap  for  the  children  of  Israel  by  enticing 
them  to  eat  meat  sacrificed  to  idols  and  to  practice 

1$  fornication.  So  you  also  have  in  your  midst 
some  who  similarly  adhere  to  the  precepts  of  the 

16  Nicolaitans,  Therefore  repent.  Otherwise  I  am 
coming  to  you  speedily  to  make  war  upon  them 
with  the  sword  of  my  mouth, 

17  Let  him  who  has  an  ear  hear  what  the  Spirit 
says  to  the  churches:  To  the  one  who  co^tquers  I 
will  grant  the  privilege  of  eating  the  hidden 
mannn  and  will  give  him  a  white  pebble  upon 
which  is  inscribed  a  new  name  known  to  no  one 
except  the  recipient. 

The  seer  recognizes  that  the  Christians  of 
Pergamum  are  living  in  the  midst  of  peculiarly 
trying  and  dangerous  surroundings.  The  city 
was  so  pre-eminent  a  center  of  heathen  religions 
that  it  could  very  fittingly  be  termed  the  place 
of  Satan's  own  residence  where  his  very  throne 


I  I 


»l 


2  20 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Warnings  to  the  Churches 


221 


ill 


was  to  be  seen.  What  John  means  by  Satan's 
throne  is  not  perfectly  clear.  Pergamum  con- 
tained a  magnificent  altar  of  Savior  Zeus,  and 
also  a  thriving  cult  of  Asklepios,  with  his  sacred 
serpent.^  Either  of  these  phenomena  might 
readily  suggest  to  John  the  special  activities  of 
Satan.  But  mention  of  the  sufferings  endured 
by  Christians  for  the  name  of  Christ  makes  it 
highly  probable  that  the  Caesar-cult  of  Per- 
gamum was  regarded  by  the  seer  as  the  unique 
exhibition  of  Satan's  presence  upon  earth.  It 
was  in  this  city  in  the  year  29  B.C.  that  the  first 
temple  of  the  official  imperial  cult  of  the 
province  had  been  reared  to  Augustus  and  the 
goddess  Roma.  Henceforth  the  city  continued 
to  be  a  vigorous  and  influential  center  of 
emperor-worship.  It  was  entirely  natural  that 
Christians  of  Pergamum  should  receive  espe- 
cially severe  treatment  for  their  refusal  to  wor- 
ship Caesar,  and,  in  fact,  of  the  seven  churches 
addressed  this  seems  to  have  been  the  only  one 
where  an  actual  martyrdom  had  as  yet  occurred. 
In  spite  of  the  admirable  fidelity  exhibited 
by  the  Pergamenian  Christians  in  the  hour  of 
persecution,  they  are  blamed  for  tolerating  in 
their  midst  a  few  individuals  who  are  too  liber- 

*  See  above,  pp.  lo  f. 


ally  disposed  toward  their  pagan  environment 
to  suit  the  puritan  temper  of  the  apocalyptic 
seer.  He  takes  offense  at  the  readiness  with 
which  these  persons  eat  meat  from  animals  that 
have  been  killed  in  the  heathen  sacrifices.  When 
a  sacrifice  was  offered  certain  portions  of  the 
victim  were  used  to  provide  food  for  a  public 
feast  or  were  appropriated  for  the  needs  of  the 
priests,  but  a  considerable  part  of  the  meat  was 
usually  placed  on  sale  in  the  pubHc  market. 
In  a  sense  the  temples  were  the  slaughterhouses 
of  antiquity,  and  one  who  had  scruples  against 
using  this  meat  might  often  find  it  difficult  to 
procure  any  other.  Thus  the  question  of  eating 
meat  constituted  a  real  problem  for  Christians 
living  in  a  gentile  environment.  Even  in  Paul's 
day  the  Corinthians  had  debated  this  same 
issue,  with  the  result  that  some  Christians  took 
a  conservative  attitude  while  others  adopted  a 
very  liberal  course  of  procedure.' 

In  the  church  at  Pergamum  there  were  a 
few  Christians  who,  following  the  leadership  of 
a  certain  Nicolas,  were  liberally  disposed  on  the 
question  of  meats.  They  may  have  made  it  a 
practice  to  purchase  openly  such  meat  in  the 
market,  or  on  occasion  they  may  have  attended 

'  I  Cor.,  chap.  8. 


ii 


222 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Warnings  to  the  Churches 


223 


iiln 


a  public  feast  where  portions  of  the  sacrificial 
victim  were  served.  It  is  also  possible  that  as 
members  of  a  trade  guild,  or  through  some  other 
form  of  customary  social  contact  with  Gentiles, 
they  were  accustomed  to  partake  of  this  for- 
bidden food.  From  the  standpoint  of  John's 
strenuous  puritanism  such  concessions  to  pagan 
custom  would  easily  be  interpreted  to  involve 
gross  immoralities.  By  Jews  and  early  Chris- 
tians alike  the  religious  rites  and  social  customs 
of  paganism  were  commonly  supposed  to  involve 
practices  of  fornication.  The  eating  of  meat 
sacrificed  to  idols  and  the  immoralities  of  for- 
nication were  stock  accusations  to  bring  against 
the  heathen.  Following  this  precedent  similar 
charges  were  freely  leveled  against  any  members 
of  the  Christian  community  who  might  show  an 
inclination  to  come  to  terms  with  the  social  or 
cultural  life  of  their  gentile  environment.  It 
was  commonly  assumed  in  purely  a  priori 
fashion  that  any  deviation  from  traditional 
beliefs  or  customs  must  necessarily  be  prompted 
by  evil  motives.  Mere  nonconformity  was 
itself  prima  facie  evidence  of  guilt,  and  the  dis- 
senter was  often  branded  with  the  label  of 
liberalism,  which  was  supposed  to  carry  its  own 
moral  condemnation. 


Perhaps  the  censured  Christians  of  Per- 
gamum  were  victims  of  conventional  habits 
of  condemnation.  Since  they  were  exponents 
of  the  liberal  practice  in  reference  to  the  use  of 
sacrificial  meats,  their  opponents  readily  sus- 
pected them  of  participating  in  the  character- 
istic irmnoralities  of  paganism.  John  even  goes 
to  the  extent  of  implying  that  they  sought  to 
accomplish  the  ruin  of  true  religion.  Their 
conduct  is  likened  to  that  of  Balaam,  who  served 
in  Jewish  tradition  as  a  conspicuous  example  of 
this  type  of  perversity.  The  Balaam  of  Old 
Testament  story'  had  played  a  very  different 
r61e,  but  John  uses  a  later  elaboration  of  the 
narrative  which  is  to  be  found  also  in  Philo^ 
and  in  Josephus.^  According  to  this  tradition 
Balaam  is  said  to  have  advised  Balak,  king  of 
Moab,  that  he  could  bring  disaster  upon  Israel 
by  instigating  the  Midianite  women  to  entice 
the  young  men  of  the  Hebrews  to  participate  in 
heathen  religious  rites.  So  John  implies  that 
the  Nicolaitans'  advocacy  of  freedom  in  the  use 
of  sacrificial  meat  is  really  intended  to  entice 
Christians  into  the  immoral  ways  of  paganism. 
It  is  quite  possible  that  the  accused  persons 


'Num.,  chaps.  22 ff. 
*  Life  oj  Moses  I.  53  f. 


»  Ant.  IV.  vi.  6  f. 


224 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Warnings  to  the  Churches 


225 


III 


I 


would  have  resented  the  imphcation  as  unjust, 
but  the  seer  is  convinced  that  their  conduct 
admits  of  no  other  interpretation.  Therefore 
they  are  admonished  to  abandon  their  practices, 
else  Christ  will  come  suddenly  upon  them  to 
slay  them  with  the  sword  that  projects  from  his 
mouth. 

In  contrast  with  the  sacrificial  meat  which 
some  Christians  of  Pergamum  had  been  eating, 
a  new  divine  food  is  promised  those  triumphant 
Christians  who  keep  themselves  holy  and  ready 
to  receive  Christ  at  his  coming.  In  referring  to 
hidden  manna,  John  again  draws  upon  late 
Jewish  tradition  which  reported  that  the  ark 
with  its  sacred  contents,  including  the  pot  of 
manna,  had  been  hidden  by  Jeremiah  before  the 
Babylonians  captured  Jerusalem,  but  would  be 
restored  to  the  faithful  by  the  Messiah.  A 
belief  that  the  righteous  would  again  be  given 
manna  for  food  in  the  messianic  kingdom  is 
clearly  expressed  in  the  Apocalypse  of  Baruch: 

And  it  shall  come  to  pass  at  that  self  same  time 
that  the  treasury  of  manna  shall  again  descend  from 
on  high  and  they  shall  eat  of  it  in  those  years  because 
these  are  they  who  have  come  to  the  consummation 
of  time  [29:8]. 

The  significance  of  the  white  pebble  secretly 
inscribed  with  a  new  name  would  be  readily 


understood  by  all  John's  readers,  familiar  as 
they  must  have  been  with  the  widely  prevalent 
magical  practices  of  that  day.  These  practices 
rested  upon  beUef  in  the  magical  significance  of 
a  name.  To  know  the  name  of  an  individual, 
whether  of  a  spirit  or  of  a  man,  was  thought  to 
give  one  power  over  that  person,  and  to  carry 
about  in  one's  possession  an  amulet  inscribed 
with  a  name  known  to  no  one  else  was  regarded 
as  the  best  possible  guaranty  of  special  pri\dlege 
and  immunity  from  harm.  What  John  prob- 
ably means  is  that  the  saints  in  the  new  mes- 
sianic kingdom  will  be  equipped  with  a  charm 
in  the  form  of  a  white  pebble  on  which  a  new 
secret  name  for  each  person  will  be  written. 
However  strange  this  notion  may  seem  to  the 
thinking  of  modern  times,  it  could  not  fail  to 
make  a  strong  appeal  to  the  original  readers  of 
Revelation. 

VII.      MESSAGE  TO  THYATIRA  (2:18-29) 

2:18        Also  to  the  guardian  angel  of  the  church  at 
Thyatira  write: 

The  Son  of  God,  who  has  eyes  that  flash  like 

a  flame  of  fire  and  whose  feet  glow  like  molten 

19  bronze,  speaks  thus:  I  am  aware  of  your  activities 

— your  brotherly  love,  fidelity  to  Christ,  ministry 


226 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Warnings  to  the  Churches 


227 


II 


lilli! 


1  m 


to  the  needy,  and  patient  endurance.  And  I  know 
that  recently  your  activities  have  been  greater  than 
they  were  at  the  outset, 

20  But  I  hold  it  against  you  that  you  tolerate  the 
woman  Jezabel,  who  calls  herself  a  prophetess  and 
by  her  teaching  entices  my  servants  to  practice 

21  fornication  and  eat  meat  sacrificed  to  idols.  I 
gave  her  an  opportunity  to  repent,  but  she  is  not 

22  willing  to  repent  of  her  fornication,  Mark  you, 
I  am  about  to  cast  her  upon  a  bed  of  sickness  and 
sorely  afflict  those  who  share  her  fornication,  unless 

23  they  forsake  her  practices.  Her  children  also  I 
will  smite  with  death.  Thus  all  the  churches  will 
know  that  I  am  the  one  who  discerns  the  secret 
purposes  of  the  heart  and  I  will  requite  each  of 

24  you  in  accordance  with  your  conduct.  But  my 
message  to  the  rest  of  you  in  Thyatira,  who  do  not 
hold  this  teaching  and  have  not,  as  they  say^ 
known  the  ^^deep  things^'  of  Satan,  is,  that  I  put 

25  upon  you  no  additional  burden  except  that  you 
continue  steadfast  in  your  present  course  of 
action  until  the  time  of  my  coming, 

26  //  anyone  conquers  by  persisting  to  the  end  in 
activities  pleasing  to  me  I  will  give  him,  as  I  also 
have  received  from  my  father,  authority  over  the 

27  Gentiles  and  he  will  rule  them  with  a  rod  of  iron^ 
smiting  them  down  even  as  vessels  of  pottery  are 


28  shattered  in  pieces.     Also  I  will  give  him  the 

29  brightness  of  the  morning  star.    Let  him  who  has 
an  ear  hear  what  the  Spirit  says  to  the  churches. 

Except  for  a  single  defect  the  Christians  at 
Thyatira  were  heartily  approved.  Unfortu- 
nately, however,  they  like  their  brethren  of 
Pergammn  harbored  in  their  midst  certain 
persons  who  advocated  a  too  liberal  attitude 
toward  heathen  society.  The  leader  of  this 
movement  was  a  woman  who  played  the  role 
of  prophetess,  thus  lending  prestige  to  her 
teachings.  In  that  age,  especially  among  Gen- 
tiles, a  unique  respect  was  accorded  the  proph- 
etess as  well  as  the  prophet.  The  title  might 
be  applied  to  any  woman  of  ecstatic  tempera- 
ment, particularly  if  her  utterances  were  some- 
times delivered  in  an  oracular  manner.  But 
instead  of  admitting  the  woman  of  Thyatira 
to  the  dignity  of  a  prophetess,  John  calls  her  a 
"Jezabel."  Probably  this  was  not  her  real 
name,  but  was  intended  as  a  term  of  disgrace 
used  symbolically  to  depict  her  iniquity,  as  is 
similarly  the  case  when  Rome  is  called  "Baby- 
lon" (14:8;  16:19;  17:5;  18:2,  10,  21).  Such 
symbolic  usage  is  characteristic  of  apocalyptic 
style.  She  was  a  Jezabel  because  she  led  astray 
Christians  even  as  Jezabel   (Jezebel)   of  old 


if 


228 


The  Revelation  of  John 


seduced  King  Ahab,  causing  him  to  serve 
heathen  gods  and  resist  Elijah,  the  true  prophet 
of  Jehovah.* 

This  Christian  Jezabel  was  guilty  of  advo- 
cating the  exercise  of  that  same  freedom  in  one's 
relation  to  pagan  society  that  John  had  previ- 
ously condemned  as  Nicolaitanism  (2:6,  14  f.). 
But  in  Thyatira  the  propaganda  seems  to  have 
been  more  successful  than  in  other  communities, 
probably  in  consequence  of  the  zeal  of  the 
prophetess.  On  a  previous  occasion  she  had 
been  reprimanded,  probably  by  John  himself, 
but  apparently  she  had  only  been  the  more 
vigorous  in  the  pursuit  of  her  activities.  Not 
only  had  she  won  a  following  in  Thyatira, 
but  her  fame  had  spread  among  the  Chris- 
tians of  other  communities,  who  were,  how- 
ever, to  be  taught  a  lesson  by  the  divine 
pimishment  presently  to  overtake  her.  In  those 
days  it  was  a  common  beUef  that  sickness  and 
premature  death  were  chastisements  from  God. 
This  opinion  is  strikingly  illustrated  by  Paul 
when  he  informs  the  Corinthians  that  their 
unworthy  conduct  in  observing  the  Lord's 
Supper  has  caused  the  ill  health  from  which 
many  of  them  are  suffering  and  the  death  of 

«I  Kings  16:31  ff.;  18:4, 13;  21:23  ff.;  II  Kings  9:22,  30-37. 


Warnings  to  the  Churches 


229 


others.'  Should  John's  prediction  come  true, 
in  like  manner  the  prophetess  of  Thyatira  would 
be  laid  low  by  illness,  her  children  would  be 
carried  off  by  death,  and  those  persons  who 
continued  to  share  her  views  would  be  similarly 
punished. 

The  exact  nature  of  her  guilt  is  not  made 
absolutely  clear  by  John.  Undoubtedly  she 
maintained  the  propriety  of  eating  meat  that 
came  from  sacrificial  victims,  and  she  may  have 
approved  of  attendance  upon  heathen  feasts  or 
other  social  gatherings  of  pagan  society.  This 
procedure  might  involve  fornication,  yet  it  did 
not  necessarily  do  so.  Of  course  for  John  so 
free  a  concession  to  pagan  customs  imphed 
abandonment  of  the  true  faith  and  lapse  into 
idolatry,  a  type  of  conduct  which  Jews  were 
accustomed  to  describe  figuratively  as  forni- 
cation.^ This  alone  had  been  the  peculiar  sin 
of  the  original  Jezabel.^  So  John  accuses  the 
Christian  Jezabel  of  enticing  the  servants  of 
God  in  Thyatira  to  apostatize  to  heathenism 
by  eating  idolatrous  meats.  Whether  he  also 
intended  to  charge  her  with  the  actual  practice 
of  sexual   immorality   is   less   certain.    It   is 


'I  Cor.  11:30. 

*n  Chron.  21:11, 13, 


» I  Kings  16:31-33. 


230 


The  Revelation  oj  John 


Warnings  to  the  Churches 


231 


> 


hazardous  to  press  a  literal  meaning  upon  the 
figurative  language  of  apocalyptic  writers,  yet 
it  is  also  true  that  John  would  undoubtedly  be 
predisposed  to  regard  her  vicious  teaching  as 
prima  facie  evidence  of  moral  degeneracy.  To- 
day we  have  no  means  of  knowing  to  what 
extent  his  suspicions  may  have  been  true  to 
fact.  Knowledge  of  the  "deep  things''  which 
she  and  her  followers  claimed  for  themselves 
sounds  like  an  oracular  utterance  of  a  prophetess 
reiterating  claims  to  knowledge  similar  to  those 
made  by  the  liberals  of  Corinth  in  justification 
of  their  practice  of  eating  sacrificial  meats.' 
Whatever  may  have  been  the  nature  of  this 
knowledge  as  claimed  by  its  advocates,  for 
John  it  was  simply  a  Satanic  wisdom. 

The  closing  sentences  of  the  message  to 
Thyatira  offer  the  faithful,  not  a  program  of 
concession  to  gentile  customs,  but  an  assurance 
that  Christians  will  share  with  Christ  the 
privilege  of  ultimately  annihilating  all  their 
heathen  foes.  Then  will  the  triumphant  saints 
find  themselves  bathed  in  the  glorious  light 
which  radiates  from  the  victorious  Messiah 
whom  John  later  calls  the  bright  morning  star 
(22:16). 

*  I  Cor.,  chap.  8. 


Vni.      MESSAGE  TO  SARDIS   (3:1-6) 

3:1        Also  to  the  guardian  angel  of  the  church  at 
Sardis  write: 

He  who  holds  the  seven  spirits  of  God  and  the 
seven  stars  speaks  thus:  I  am  aware  of  your 
activities  and  that  although  reputed  to  be  alive  you 

2  are  at  the  point  of  death.  Wake  up  and  reinforce 
the  remnant  of  your  waning  vitality  which  is  on 
the  point  of  vanishing,  for  in  the  presence  of  my 
God  I  have  found  no  works  of  yours  complete, 

3  Therefore  call  to  mind  the  instruction  you  have 
received  and  heard,  and  laying  it  to  heart  repent. 
If,  however,  you  do  not  watch  I  shall  come  upon 
you  stealthily  like  a  thief,  nor  will  you  know  at 

4  what  hour  I  shall  come  upon  you.  But  you  have 
a  few  persons  in  Sardis  who  have  not  polluted 
their  garments,  and  they  will  he  permitted  to  walk 
with  me  in  white  raiment  because  they  are  worthy 
of  this  reward, 

5  Likemse  he  who  conquers  will  be  clothed  in 
white  garments  and  I  will  not  erase  his  name  from 
the  book  of  life,  but  will  acknowledge  him  as  mine 

6  in  the  presence  of  my  father  and  his  angels.  Let 
him  who  has  an  ear  hear  what  the  Spirit  says  to 
the  churches. 

In  referring  again  to  Christ  as  the  source  of 
his  revelation,  the  seer  describes  him  as  holding 


232 


The  Revelation  oj  John 


Warnings  to  the  Churches 


233 


in  his  hand  not  only  the  seven  stars  representing 
the  seven  churches  (i :  16,  20),  but  also  the  seven 
spirits  who  are  regularly  stationed  before  the 
throne  of  God  (1:4).  This  impressive  figure 
commissions  John  to  utter  a  message  of  sweep- 
ing denunciation  upon  the  Christian  group  at 
Sardis.  Details  are  lacking,  but  apparently  in 
John's  opinion  this  church  has  turned  aside  into 
forbidden  paths  and  has  almost  completely 
failed  to  pursue  the  proper  course  of  conduct 
upon  which  it  originally  started.  From  the 
predominant  interest  of  the  seer  disclosed  in  his 
remarks  to  other  churches,  one  readily  infers 
that  the  trouble  with  the  group  in  Sardis  has 
been  a  too  intimate  association  with  gentile 
society  and  a  too  general  abandonment  of  the 
puritanic  aloofness  which  had  characterized  its 
activities  during  the  earlier  years  of  its  career. 
John  laments  that  only  a  remnant  of  its  former 
manner  of  life  has  survived,  and  even  this  is 
fast  disappearing.  Therefore  he  warns  the 
church  that  in  the  heavenly  books  kept  in  the 
presence  of  God,  to  which  Christ  as  a  matter  of 
course  has  access,  the  record  of  the  Christians' 
activities  in  Sardis  is  sorely  deficient.  Only  by 
a  hasty  and  thorough  repentance  can  drastic 
punishment  be  averted. 


There  are  only  a  few  individuals  in  Sardis 
who  still  cling  to  the  old  ways,  and  these  are 
promised  a  typical  messianic  blessing.  When 
the  new  kingdom  is  established  they  will  be 
clothed  in  gloriously  resplendent  garments  and 
will  be  admitted  into  the  company  of  the 
triumphant  Christ  clad  in  his  own  regal  attire. 
In  the  day  of  judgment  their  names  will  be 
found  safely  preserved  in  the  heavenly  book  in 
which  all  the  saints  are  listed,  while  the  names 
of  their  unfaithful  companions  will  apparently 
have  been  removed  from  this  favored  position. 
The  safety  of  the  saints  is  further  insured  by  a 
promise  that  on  the  judgment  day  they  will  be 
conducted  by  Christ  himself  into  the  very 
presence  of  God  and  his  angels,  and  there  Christ 
will  declare  them  to  be  his  own  peculiar  pos- 
session. 

Apocalyptic  seers  often  refer  to  the  book  of 
life  along  with  other  records  kept  by  God.  The 
idea  of  heavenly  books  containing  an  account 
of  all  men's  doings,  or  a  special  list  of  those 
persons  entitled  to  heavenly  rewards,  is  an 
ancient  form  of  religious  imagery  well  known  to 
the  Hebrews,  particularly  after  their  contact  with 
the  Babylonians.  Its  prominence  in  Christian 
and  Jewish  apocalypses  is  a  continuation  of 


234 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Warnings  to  the  Churches 


235 


the  usage  in  Daniel,  where  mention  is  made  of 
the  books  to  be  opened  in  the  day  of  judgment, 
and  of  a  book  in  which  the  names  of  the  right- 
eous are  accurately  recorded  (7:10;  12:1).  John 
often  refers  to  such  records  (13:8;  17:8;  20:12, 
15;  21:27),  but  says  nothing  about  the  manner 
in  which  they  were  kept.  In  Jewish  thinking  it 
was  sometimes  assumed  that  God  himself  had 
made  the  entries,  but  more  frequently  he  is 
represented  as  choosing  for  this  purpose  a  special 
recorder,  such  as  Enoch,  Ezra,  Michael,  or  some 
less  conspicuous  heavenly  scribe. 

IX.      MESSAGE  TO  PHILADELPHIA  (3:7-13) 

3:7        Also  to  the  guardian  angel  of  the  church  at 
Philadelphia  write: 

The  holy  and  reliable  one,  he  who  holds  in  his 
possession  the  key  to  the  coming  kingdom  of  David, 
who  opens  and  none  shall  shut  and  who  shuts  and 

8  none  shall  open,  speaks  thus:  I  am  aware  of 
your  activities.  Behold  I  have  placed  before  you 
a  door  of  hope  standing  open  which  no  one  is  able 
to  shut,  I  know  that  your  resources  are  small, 
that  you  kept  my  commatid,  and  that  you  did  not 

9  renounce  my  name.  Behold  I  will  make  the 
members  of  the  synagogue  of  Satan,  who  call 
themselves  Jews  when  they  are  not,  but  are  liars — 


behold  I  will  make  them  come  and  prostrate  them- 
selves at  your  feet,  and  they  shall  know  that  I 

10  loved  you.  Since  you  kept  inviolate  my  command 
to  exercise  patient  endurance,  I  will  also  preserve 
you  during  the  time  of  testing  which  is  about  to 
come  upon  the  whole  world  to  test  the  inhabitants 

1 1  of  the  earth.  My  coming  is  at  hand.  Hold  fast 
your  present  course  in  order  that  no  one  may 
deprive  you  of  your  crown. 

1 2  //  anyone  conquers  I  will  make  him  a  pillar  in 
the  temple  of  my  God,  nor  shall  he  ever  depart  there- 
from, and  I  will  inscribe  upon  him  the  name  of  my 
God,  and  the  name  of  the  city  of  my  God — the  new 
Jerusalem  which  descends  out  of  heaven  from  my 

13  God — and  my  own  new  name.  Let  him  who  has 
an  ear  hear  what  the  Spirit  says  to  the  churches. 

For  the  Christians  in  Philadelphia,  as  earlier 
for  their  brethren  in  Smyrna  (2:8-11),  the  seer 
has  no  word  of  censure,  but  only  a  message  of 
encouragement.  Apparently  their  conduct  thus 
far  has  been  all  that  could  be  desired,  notwith- 
standing the  disadvantages  of  their  situation. 
The  reference  to  their  lack  of  resources  seems  to 
imply  a  worldly  poverty'  similar  to  that  of  the 

'In  the  common  Greek  of  this  period  the  word  SOpajnis  is 
frequently  used  for  "means"  in  the  sense  of  financial  resources, 
as  in  II  Cor.  8:3.  See  Moulton  and  Milligan,  The  Vocabulary  of 
the  Greek  Testament,  s,v. 


M 


236 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Warnings  to  the  Churches 


237 


Smymeans.  While  in  each  case  the  low 
economic  status  of  the  church  meant  lack  of 
prestige  in  the  community,  it  did  not  foster  a 
disposition  to  cater  to  the  demands  of  heathen 
society,  a  tendency  against  which  John  so 
often  protests.  Still  another  point  of  re- 
semblance between  the  Smymeans  and  the 
Philadelphians  is  the  action  of  the  Jews  in  stir- 
ring up  hostility  toward  Christians.  Probably 
the  Christian  group  in  each  of  these  cities 
was  so  inconspicuous,  both  economically  and 
socially,  that  its  existence  might  have  escaped 
the  notice  of  the  authorities  had  not  the  Jews 
intervened. 

The  church  at  Philadelphia  is  given  very 
remarkable  assurances  of  reward  for  its  fidelity. 
Christ,  whom  the  seer  always  represents  as  the 
source  of  each  message,  is  here  declared  to  hold 
absolute  authority  over  the  gate  of  admission  to 
the  new  messianic  kingdom  originally  promised 
to  David.  Thus  Christ  can  admit  whom  he  will 
and  exclude  whom  he  will.  In  accordance  with 
standard  apocalyptic  thinking,  this  kingdom 
exists  in  heaven  ready  to  be  let  down  upon  earth 
at  the  end  of  the  age,  and  even  now  its  gate 
stands  open  for  the  admission  of  the  Phila- 
delphian  Christians.    Not  only  are  their  oppo- 


nents unable  to  close  this  entrance,  but  in  the 
last  day  God  will  force  those  Jews  who  have 
rejected  Christ  to  prostrate  themselves  at  the 
Christians'  feet.  But  before  receiving  the 
crown  of  victory  believers  must  pass  through 
that  final  period  of  testing  which,  according 
to  apocalyptic  writers,  is  immediately  to  pre- 
cede the  coming  of  the  Messiah.  Probably 
John  has  reference  here  to  the  anticipated 
period  of  special  testing  for  Christians  when 
the  beast  impersonating  the  imperial  power 
will  make  its  supreme  attempt  to  impose 
worship  of  itself  upon  all  the  peoples  of 
the  Empire  (Rev.  13:6-18).  This  event  will 
be  the  sign  that  Christ's  coming  is  very 
near;  hence  the  necessity  for  fidelity  under 
persecution. 

The  closing  promise  to  the  conqueror  is  an 
interesting  display  of  messianic  imagery.  The 
new  Jerusalem,  which  John  is  later  to  describe 
at  length  (21:9—22:5),  will  be  let  dovm  from 
God's  presence  in  heaven.  While  this  new  city 
will  contain  no  specific  temple  structure,  the 
entire  city  will  be  a  sanctuary  because  God  and 
Christ  dwell  therein  (21:22),  and  the  saints  also 
will  have  a  place  there  as  permanent  as  the 
pillars  of  the  temple.     Availing  himself  once 


238 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Warnings  to  the  Churches 


239 


more  of  the  current  belief  in  the  magical  power 
of  names  (2:17),  John  assures  his  readers  that 
they  will  have  at  their  disposal  the  secret  might 
of  God,  the  new  Jerusalem,  and  Christ.  What 
these  names  are  to  be,  of  course,  no  one  knows, 
for  to  disclose  them  would  mean  a  loss  of  the 
Christians'  special  privilege. 

X.      MESSAGE  TO  LAODICEA  (3:14-22) 

3:14        Also  to  the  guardian  angel  of  the  church  at 
Laodicea  write: 

The  Ameny  the  faithful  and  reliable  witness 
who  stands  at  the  head  of  God^s  creation,  speaks 

15  thus:  I  am  aware  of  your  activities  and  know 
that  you  are  neither  positively  evil  nor  zealously 
righteous,     I  wish  you  would  go  to  one  or  the 

16  other  of  these  extremes,  but  since  you  are  tepid 
and  neither  hot  nor  cold,  I  am  about  to  vomit  you 

17  out  of  my  mouth.  Because  you  say  I  am  rich 
and  have  acquired  wealth  and  am  in  need  of 
nothing,  and  do  not  realize  the  wretched  creature 
that  you  really  are,  pitiable  and  poor  and  blind 

18  and  naked,  therefore  I  advise  you  to  purchase 
from  me  gold  tested  by  the  fire  in  order  that  you 
may  be  truly  rich,  and  white  garments  to  put  on 
in  order  to  avoid  revealing  the  shame  of  your 


nakedness,  and  eye  salve  to  apply  to  your  eyes  in 
order  that  you  may  see, 

19  Those  whom  I  love  I  reprove  and  chastise; 

20  therefore  become  zealous  and  repent.  Behold  I 
stand  at  the  door  and  knock.  If  anyone  will  heed 
my  voice  and  will  open  the  door  I  will  become  his 
guest  and  will  eat  with  him  and  he  with  me, 

21  The  one  who  conquers  I  will  permit  to  sit 
beside  me  on  my  throne,  even  as  I  have  conquered 

22  and  sat  beside  my  father  on  his  throne.  Let  him 
who  has  an  ear  hear  what  the  Spirit  says  to  the 
churches. 

The  titles  used  of  Christ  in  the  address  to 
the  Laodiceans  emphasize  the  certainty  and 
authority  of  the  message.  He  who  authorizes 
the  seer's  warning  is  the  very  personification  of 
verity,  fidehty,  and  reliability.  Moreover  his 
presidency  over  the  creation  of  God  carries  an 
authority  which  the  Laodicean  church  would 
seem  to  be  bound  to  respect.  In  referring  to  this 
official  dignity  of  Christ,  perhaps  John  has  in 
mind  not  only  the  present  world  but  more 
especially  the  new  messianic  kingdom  over 
which  Christ  now  presides  in  the  heavenly 
sphere  while  awaiting  the  hour  for  his  descent 
to  earth,  when  a  full  display  of  his  messianic 
authority  will  be  exhibited.    Thus  Christ  is  the 


240 


The  Revelation  oj  John 


official  who  inaugurates  the  new  age,  the  true 
divine  creation.^ 

Matters  had  been  going  altogether  too 
smoothly  with  the  Christians  of  Laodicea  to 
suit  the  strenuous  otherworldly  temper  of  the 
apocalyptic  seer.  The  Laodiceans  were  not 
holding  themselves  in  momentary  expectation 
of  the  end  of  the  present  world,  but  on  the 
contrary  were  engaging  in  trade  or  business 
which  had  brought  them  a  good  measure  of 
prosperity.  This  economic  success  undoubtedly 
insured  a  degree  of  social  prestige  that  made 
possible  a  sense  of  comfort  and  security  which 
seemed  to  John  utterly  worthless  in  view  of  his 
confidence  in  the  early  destruction  of  all  worldly 
possessions.  He  advises  the  Laodicean  Chris- 
tians to  forego  these  earthly  comforts  in  order 

'  It  is  true  that  1)  Apxi?  of  Rev.  3 :  14  is  usually  given  a  more 
speculative  turn,  as  meaning  either  that  Christ  was  the  first  work 
of  God's  creation  or,  more  commonly,  that  he  was  the  active 
source  and  principle  underlying  creation  (Col.  1:151!.).  But 
apocalyptic  seers  usually  are  interested  primarily  in  questions  of 
authority  and  have  no  taste,  or  even  no  capacity,  for  philosophical 
definitions.  In  general  this  is  also  true  of  John,  and  since  Lpxh 
may  mean  a  position  of  primacy,  a  magistracy  (Titus  3:1),  this 
is  more  probably  the  sense  in  which  John  uses  the  term.  This 
probability  is  enhanced  by  the  practice,  current  at  this  time  in 
Asia,  of  applying  apxw  and  dipxh  to  emperors  whose  birthday  or 
accession  to  power  the  inscriptions  flatteringly  hail  as  the  begin- 
ning of  a  new  age  for  mankind. 


Warnings  to  the  Churches 


241 


t 


I 

\9 


to  secure  for  themselves  the  richer  heavenly 
treasure  that  would  be  dispensed  among  the 
saints  in  the  messianic  kingdom.  It  is  note- 
worthy that  in  the  Laodicean  church  John  finds 
no  occasion  to  upbraid  outstanding  acts  of  sin 
such  as  he  charges  against  the  Nicolaitans  and 
the  Jezabelites.  The  lack  of  exaggerated  evil 
in  the  church  seems  to  the  seer  a  positive  dis- 
advantage, for  other\vise  there  might  be  more 
hope  of  reform.  But  the  Laodicean  Christians 
were  too  respectable  to  feel  the  sting  of  repri- 
mand and  too  inferior  to  merit  praise.  Their 
religion  was  a  tepid  affair,  nauseating  to  an 
extremist  of  John's  type,  for  whom  moderation 
was  a  well-nigh  unpardonable  fault  because  so 
difficult  to  dislodge  from  its  intrenched  self- 
complacency. 

However,  a  ray  of  hope  is  still  extended  to  the 
Laodicean  Christians.  The  seer's  harsh  mes- 
sage is  delivered  for  their  reproval  and  chas- 
tisement, with  a  view  to  encouraging  a  hasty 
and  sincere  repentance  before  Christ  returns. 
John  thinks  this  event  is  so  near  that  even  now 
Christ  may  be  said  to  be  standing  at  the  door, 
a  metaphor  used  by  other  early  Christians  to 
express  their  belief  in  the  imminent  Parousia.' 

'Mark  13:29;  Matt.  24:33;  Jas.  5:9. 


242 


The  Revelation  of  John 


^i 


The  notion  of  a  fellowship  meal  to  be  shared 
in  common  by  Christ  and  the  saints  in  the  new 
kingdom  was  also  a  current  item  of  belief 
in  both  Jewish  and  Christian  apocalyptic 
circles.*  A  similarly  familiar  notion  closely 
associated  with  this  festive  scenery  is  the 
picture  of  a  throne  or  thrones  representing 
special  seats  of  honor  and  power,  occupied  not 
only  by  God  and  Christ  but  also  by  the  right- 
eous. To  be  enthroned  was  the  proper  status 
of  one  empowered  to  enact  judgment,  which 
according  to  the  eschatological  beliefs  of  Chris- 
tians was  a  prerogative  to  be  shared  alike  by 
God,  Christ,  and  the  triumphant  saints.*  Such 
were  the  promised  rewards  that  John  held  up 
to  the  gaze  of  the  Laodicean  church  as  an 
incentive  for  effecting  a  hasty  and  genuine 
repentance. 

*I  En.  62:14;  Matt.  26:29;  Luke  22:16,  18,  29  f. 

*I  En.  108:12;  I  Cor.  6:3;  Matt.  19:28;  Luke  22:29!. 


CHAPTER  V 

BEGINNINGS  OF  TRIBULATION 
(REV.  4:1—11:14) 

In  the  course  of  his  initial  vision  John  had 
been  commissioned  (i)  to  record  a  revelation 
regarding  the  present  status  of  the  churches, 
and  (2)  to  describe  impending  events  (1:19). 
The  former  of  these  obligations  was  met  by 
composing  the  letters  to  the  seven  churches. 
On  the  authority  of  Christ  the  seer  praised  the 
members  of  the  churches  for  their  fidelity  in  the 
past,  admonished  them  to  remain  steadfast  in 
the  future,  rebuked  them  for  their  shortcomings, 
and  strenuously  exhorted  them  to  institute 
such  reforms  as  were  needed  in  preparation  for 
the  early  advent  of  the  Messiah. 

With  this  task  accomplished,  John  was 
ready  for  the  second  part  of  his  work.  He 
anticipated  an  early  aggravation  of  the  Chris- 
tians' troubles,  when  Roman  persecution  would 
become  increasingly  severe  and  the  exaggerated 
evils  of  the  last  times  would  begin  to  break 
forth  upon  the  earth.  But  he  had  been  con- 
soled and  reassured  by  his  own  firm  conviction 

243 


244 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Beginnings  of  Tribulation 


H5 


that  an  early  and  complete  triumph  was  in 
store  for  Christians.  In  his  opinion  the  multi- 
pKcation  of  ills  merely  signified  the  near 
approach  of  the  end,  when  Satan's  rule  would 
be  completely  abolished  and  Christ's  kingdom 
fully  established.  A  description  of  incidents 
leading  up  to  this  grand  consunmiation  forms 
the  subject-matter  of  the  remaining  portion  of 
Revelation.  It  depicts  numerous  forms  of  evil 
that  are  to  become  increasingly  prevalent  in 
the  last  times  (4:1 — 11:14),  it  describes  the 
great  outburst  of  wickedness  to  issue  in  the 
ultimate  overthrow  of  Rome,  the  unique  agent 
of  Satan  (11:15 — 18:24),  and  it  portrays  the 
final  victory  of  heaven  and  the  glories  of  the 
new  age  when  Christ  will  come  in  triumph,  caus- 
ing the  saints  to  dwell  in  eternal  peace  (19:1 — 
22:5).  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  letters  to  the 
churches  are  only  introductory,  being  primarily 
designed  to  prepare  Christians  to  participate 
in  those  phenomenal  impending  events  which 
the  seer  is  about  to  foretell. 

John's  preliminary  visions  of  coming  events 
are  mainly  a  message  of  assurance  to  his  com- 
panions in  distress.  While  confronted  by 
threatening  afflictions,  they  are  first  shown  a 
picture  of  the  transcendent  majesty  and  power 


of  the  God  in  whom  they  trust  (chap.  4).    To 
this  is  added  a  similar  description  of  the  exalted 
Christ    and    his    glorious    status    in    heaven 
(chap.  5).    A  relatively  brief  reference  to  the 
beginnings  of  distress  in  the  last  times  (6 : 1-8) 
serves  as  a  setting  for  reminding  Christians 
that  God  will  hear  the  cry  of  the  martyrs  and 
bring  their  enemies  to  justice  by  executing  his 
judgment  upon  all  the  unsaved  (6:9-17).    In 
describing  the  sealing  of  the  righteous  (7 : 1-8) 
and  the  final  happy  condition  of  the  redeemed 
(7*9-17)  the  seer  provides  further  evidence 
that  the  ultimate  victory  of  the  Christians' 
cause   is   fuUy   assured,   notwithstanding   the 
temporary  ascendancy  of  its  Satanic  foes  and 
the  seeming  tardiness  of   God  in  interfering 
to  relieve  the  situation. 

Then  follows  a  series  of  pictures  portraying 
even  more  vividly  the  increase  of  evils.  All 
who  dwell  upon  earth  must  suffer,  but  the 
righteous  wiU  confidently  await  the  interven- 
tion of  heaven  to  destroy  the  forces  of  Satan 
and  vindicate  the  saints.  This  time  of  testing 
wiU  be  a  period  of  aggravated  suffering,  bring- 
mg  to  a  climax  the  evils  of  the  great  tribulation 
so  frequently  represented  in  apocalyptic  writ- 
ings as  the  necessary  preliminary  to  the  final 


246 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Beginnings  of  Tribulation 


247 


deliverance  which  God  arid  the  Messiah  will 
effect  when  the  appointed  time  for  divine  action 
arrives.  In  John's  visions  the  acceleration  of 
distress  begins  with  the  introduction  of  seven 
trumpeting  angels  (8:1-6),  who  successively 
give  the  signal  for  displaying  a  series  of  pictures 
showing  the  characteristic  afflictions  belonging 
to  the  preliminary  days  of  the  time  of  tribula- 
tion. The  first  four  signals  introduce  pictures 
exhibiting  a  series  of  convulsions  in  nature, 
which  result  in  a  reduction  of  nature's  energy 
by  one-third  of  its  original  force  (8:7-13). 
The  blowing  of  the  fifth  trumpet  reveals  a  more 
terrible  calamity,  in  the  form  of  a  swarm  of 
demonic  locusts  from  the  underworld  let  loose 
upon  earth  to  torture  mankind  for  five  months 
(9 :  i-i  2) .  The  trumpet-blast  of  the  sixth  angel 
brings  upon  the  stage  a  host  of  terrible  warriors 
from  the  east,  who  slay  one-third  of  the  earth's 
inhabitants  (9 :  13-2 1). 

As  the  agonies  of  the  tribulation  are  aug- 
mented almost  beyond  the  point  of  further 
endurance,  John  sees  a  mighty  angel  solemnly 
affirming  that  the  time  has  now  arrived  when 
the  intervention  of  heaven  will  be  delayed 
no  longer  (10:1-7).  Also  by  swallowing  a 
heavenly  book  the   prophetic  powers  of   the 


seer  are  reinforced  for  his  further  task  of  depict- 
ing the  final  conflict  between  the  forces  of 
Satan  and  the  forces  of  God  (10:8-11).  This 
is  to  be  the  theme  of  the  next  main  division  of 
his  revelation,  but  as  the  last  item  in  the  pre- 
liminary period  of  the  tribulation  John  has 
still  to  describe  the  fate  awaiting  the  old 
Jerusalem  (11 : 1-14). 

I.      HEAVENLY  GLORY  OF   GOD    (CHAP.    4) 

4 : 1  Afterwards  I  had  a  second  vision  when  sud- 
deftly  I  saw  a  door  standing  open  in  the  sky  and 
the  trumpet-like  voice  which  I  had  heard  speaking 
with  me  on  the  former  occasion  said,  Come  up 
here  and  I  will  show  you  a  vision  of  subsequent 
events  that  must  occur. 

2  Immediately  I  was  in  the  Spirit  and,  behold, 

3  /  saw  a  throne  standing  in  heaven,  and  enthroned 
thereon  was  a  being  whose  appearance  was 
radiant  as  jewels  of  jasper  and  sardius,  and 
encircling   the   throne   was   an   emerald-colored 

4  halo.  Arranged  in  a  circle  about  the  throne  were 
twenty-four  thrones  and  seated  thereon  were 
twenty-four  dignitaries  clothed  in  white  garments 

5  and  crowned  with  gold  croums.  And  there  issued 
from  the  throne  flashing  lightnings,  terrifying 
sounds,  and  pealing  thunders.     In  front  of  the 


'1 


i   ,1 


■Ik 


248 


The  Revelation  of  John 


throne  burned  seven  blazing  torches,  which  are 

6  the  seven  spirits  of  God,  and  stretching  away  before 
the  throne  was  a  crystal-like  expanse  resembling 
a  sea  of  glass.  In  the  midst  of  the  throne,  guard- 
ing it  on  all  sides  were  four  living  creatures  all 

7  covered  with  eyes.  The  first  living  creature 
resembled  a  lion,  the  second  resembled  an  ox,  the 
third  had  a  face  like  that  of  a  man,  and  the  fourth 

8  resembled  an  eagle  in  the  attitude  of  flight.  And 
the  four  living  creatures,  each  having  six  wings,  were 
covered  with  eyes  all  over,  even  inside  their  wings. 
By  day  and  by  night  they  incessantly  exclaimed: 
Holy,  holy,  holy  is  the  Lord  God,  the  Almighty, 
the  one  who  was  and  who  is  and  who  is  coming. 

9  And  as  often  as  the  living  creatures  render 
glory  and  honor  and  thanksgiving  to  him  who 
occupies  the  throne  and  who  lives  throughout 

10  eternity,  the  twenty-four  dignitaries  fall  down 
before  him  who  occupies  the  throne  and  worship 
him  who  lives  throughout  eternity;  and  casting 
down  their  crowns  before  the  throne  they  exclaimed: 

11  Worthy  art  thou,  our  Lord  and  God,  to  receive 
glory  and  honor  and  power,  because  thou  didst 
create  all  things  and  by  the  action  of  thy  mil 
they  existed  and  were  created. 

Following  the  ecstatic  experience  in  which 
he  had  witnessed  a  vision  of  the  heavenly 


Beginnings  of  Tribulation 


249 


Christ  (i  :9-2o),  the  seer  seems  to  have  resumed 
temporarily  his  normal  state  of  mind.    But 
presently  his  ecstatic  powers  are  revived.    This 
time  he  beholds  an  open  door  in  the  sky,  and, 
as  in  1 :  19,  he  again  hears  the  voice  of  Christ, 
now  calling  him  up  to  heaven.     Either  stand- 
ing before  this  opening  in  the  sky,  or  passing 
in  at  the  entrance,  John  acquires  from  the 
heavenly  regions  the  wisdom  which  he  reveals 
in  his  book.    This  interpretation  of  his  ecstatic 
experience  accorded  perfectly  with  the  standard 
apocalyptic  views  of  his  age.    People  of  that 
day  believed  the  earth  to  be  flat  and  the  sky 
to  be  a  bell-shaped  vault  of  sohd  material 
shutting  ofif  the  heavenly  regions  from  the  view 
of  men.'    This  steely  vault  was  supposed  to 
be  penetrated  by  numerous  openings  or  doors 
through  which  angels,  Christ,  and  even  God 
himself   might   descend   to   earth   at   will,   or 
through  which  especially  favored  men  might 
occasionally  be  admitted  into  the  presence  of 
the  deity.     Entertaining  this  view  of  the  world' s 
structure,  apocalyptic  seers  often  beUeved  that 
they  had  been  permitted,  when  in  a  state  of 
trance,  to  enter  heaven  and  there  to  receive 
disclosures  of  future  events.^ 

'  See  above,  p.  133.       » See  above,  pp.  143  ff. 


250 


The  Revelation  of  John 


As  usual,  John  credits  his  unique  experience 
to  possession  by  the  Spirit.  In  this  favored 
state  he  obtained  a  view  of  that  room  in  heaven 
where  God  himself  sat  enthroned.  The  glory 
of  this  Divine  Being  and  the  majesty  of  his 
court  are  described  at  some  length,  evidently 
for  the  purpose  of  inspiring  Christians  with 
confidence  in  the  ultimate  triumph  of  their 
cause.  With  this  supreme  God  of  heaven  on 
their  side,  victory  is  sure.  To  find  imagery 
and  language  appropriate  to  the  description  of 
such  a  vision  was  comparatively  easy  for  John. 
Both  his  Jewish  and  his  gentile  predecessors 
had  painted  similar  scenes  from  the  world  of 
God  and  the  angels.  These  pictures  not  only 
stimulated  John  to  the  attainment  of  his 
visions  but  helped  him  in  his  subsequent  efforts 
to  depict  the  content  of  his  own  ecstatic  experi- 
ences. 

Whether  consciously  or  unconsciously,  John 
was  influenced  most  immediately  by  EzekiePs 
descriptions  of  what  he  had  seen  when  the 
heavens  opened  to  him  disclosing  visions  of 
God.^  But  John's  language  combines  a  wide 
range  of  current  imagery,  gentile  as  well  as 
Jewish  in  its  origin.    The  idea  that  the  deity 

'£zek.  1:1,  26fif. 


Beginnings  of  Tribulation 


251 


occupied  a  throne  in  heaven  was  a  generally 
accepted  belief  of  the  time.  Similarly  familiar 
was  the  notion  that  brilliant  light  radiated 
from  God's  countenance  and  a  halo  surrounded 
his  head.  The  readers  of  Revelation  would 
find  nothing  strange  or  astonishing  in  this 
description  of  the  deity's  appearance.  The 
twenty-four  royal  satellites  enthroned  about 
him  are  less  common  figures.  Jewish  imagery 
furnishes  no  similar  item,  but  in  both  Baby- 
lonia and  Persia  twenty-four  subordinate  dig- 
nitaries are  part  of  the  royal  court  of  heaven. 
The  Babylonians  recognized  a  group  of  twenty- 
four  astral  deities  whom  they  termed  assistant 
judges  of  all  things,  a  fact  known  to  Diodorus 
of  Sicily^  more  than  a  century  before  John's 
day.  From  some  such  source,  probably  through 
the  more  immediate  channels  of  popular  fancy, 
this  feature  in  the  scenery  of  heaven  had  become 
a  part  of  John's  thinking.  Also  as  Zeus  was 
the  hurler  of  thunderbolts  for  the  Greeks  and 
Jehovah  was  the  god  of  thunderstorms  among 
the  Hebrews,  so  John  can  appropriate  this  idea 
to  heighten  the  effect  of  his  description  of  the 
Christian  God.  Again,  it  was  as  easy  for  the 
people  of  that  day  to  picture  spirits  in  the  form 

'u.  31. 


2S2 


The  Revelation  of  John 


of  torches  stationed  before  the  throne  of  God  as 
vto  represent  them  in  human  form.  Angels, 
spirits,  and  other  supernatural  beings  were  sup- 
posed to  have  the  ability  to  assume  any  shape 
that  convenience  might  dictate  and  to  exist  tem- 
porarily or  continuously  as  a  torch  or  star  or 
any  other  appropriate  entity.  The  crystal-like 
expanse  forming  the  floor  of  the  royal  chamber 
seen  by  John  is  probably  his  way  of  referring 
to  the  great  ocean  of  heaven  upon  which  the 
throne  of  God  was  supposed  to  stand.  It  was 
popularly  believed,  especially  in  Jewish  circles, 
that  the  bell-shaped  vault  called  the  firmament 
supported  a  heavenly  ocean  which  had  been 
lifted  up  and  separated  from  the  waters  of 
earth  on  the  second  day  of  creation  week.' 
The  four  strange  creatures  which  adorn  God's 
throne  are  a  free  combination  of  the  cherubim 
of  Ezek.  1 : 5  f .  and  the  seraphim  of  Isa.  6 : 2  f . 
The  refrain  which  they  chant  continuously  is 
also  a  Christianized  form  of  the  seraphim's 
utterance. 

The  worship  rendered  God  by  the  members 
of  his  court  undoubtedly  had  peculiar  signifi- 
cance for  John  and  his  contemporaries.  This 
heavenly   scene   would .  suggest   the   Roman 

'Gen.  1:6-8. 


Beginnings  of  Tribulation 


253 


imperial  court  and  the  claims  to  reverence 
made  by  the  arrogant  Domitian,  who  demanded 
that  he  be  addressed  as  "our  Lord  and  God.'' 
In  contrast  with  this  blasphemous  assumption 
of  divinity,  John  reminds  his  readers  that  the 
God  whom  they  revere  and  he  alone  is  fully 
deserving  of  such  honors  even  from  the  highest 
dignitaries  of  heaven.  His  status  as  creator 
of  the  world  makes  it  fitting  that  he  should  be 
recognized  as  the  undisputed  possessor  of  all 
glory,  honor,  and  power.  . 

This  entire  picture  of  God  enthroned  in 
heavenly  glory  means  for  John  a  guaranty  of 
victory  for  all  Christians  who  will  faithfully 
resist  the  aggressions  of  the  imperial  cult. 
However  great  the  odds  against  them  may  seem 
to  be  when  viewed  with  the  eyes  of  ordinary 
mortals,  the  seer  whose  vision  penetrates  to 
the  heavenly  regions  knows  that  the  power 
of  the  Almighty  God  is  on  the  side  of  the 
persecuted  saints.  Nor  is  this  all.  With 
a  similarly  practical  end  in  view,  in  his  next 
vision  John  describes  the  unique  dignity  and 
power  of  the  heavenly  Christ,  who  is  pres- 
ently to  intervene  on  behalf  of  his  aflflicted 
disciples. 


u. 


254 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Beginnings  of  Tribulation 


^SS 


n.      POWER  AND  GLORY  OF  CHRIST  (CHAP.   5) 

5:1        Lying  upon  the  open  right  hand  of  him  who 
occupied  the  throne  I  saw  a  book-roU  written  on 

2  both  sides  and  sealed  with  seven  seals.  And  I 
saw  a  powerful  angel  proclaiming  in  a  loud  voice, 
Who  is  worthy  to  open  the  roll  and  break  its  seals  ? 

3  And  no  creature  either  in  heaven  or  on  earth  or 
in  the  underworld  possessed  ability  either  to  open 

4  the  roll  or  to  look  upon  its  contents.  As  I  was 
weeping  bitterly  because  no  one  was  found  worthy 

5  to  open  the  roll  or  to  look  upon  its  contents,  one 
of  the  dignitaries  said  to  me,  Stop  weeping. 
Behold  the  Lion  who  is  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  and 
of  David's  line  has  conquered  and  can  open  the 
roll  and  break  its  seven  seals. 

6  Then  I  saw  standing  in  the  center  of  the  throne 
surrounded  by  the  four  living  creatures  and  the 
twenty-four  dignitaries,  a  Lamb  bearing  the  marks 
of  the  sacrifice,  and  having  seven  horns  and  seven 
eyes,  which  are  the  seven  spirits  of  God  sent  on 

7  missions  to  all  parts  of  the  earth.  The  Lamb 
came  and  received  the  book-roll  from  the  right 

8  hand  of  him  who  occupied  the  throne.  And  when 
it  took  the  roll  the  four  living  creatures  and  the 
twenty-four  dignitaries  fell  down  before  the  Lamb, 
They  each  had  a  harp  and  gold  bowls  full  of 
incense,  the  incense  being  the  prayers  of  the  saints, 


9  and  they  sang  a  new  song:  Worthy  art  thou  to 
receive  the  book  and  to  open  its  seals,  because  thou 
wast  slain  and  didst  purchase  with  thy  blood  a 
possession  for  God  from  every  tribe  and  tongue 

10  and  people  and  nation,  and  thou  didst  constitute 
the  redeemed  a  kingdom  of  priests  for  our  God, 
and  they  shall  rule  over  the  earth. 

1 1  Then  in  my  vision  I  heard  a  shout  of  a  host 
of  angels  encircling  the  throne,  the  living  creatures, 
and  the  dignitaries.     They  numbered  myriads  of 

12  myriads  and  thousands  of  thousands,  as  they 
loudly  exclaimed:  The  Lamb  that  was  sacrificed 
is  worthy  to  receive  power  and  wealth  and  wisdom 
and  might  and  honor  and  glory  and  blessing. 

Then  I  heard  all  created  beings  which  are  in 
heaven  and  on  earth  ajtd  in  the  miderworld  and 
upon  the  sea,  and  all  existences  in  these  regions, 
exclaiming:  Blessing  and  honor  and  glory  and 
power  to  him  who  occupies  the  throne  and  to  the 
Lamb  throughout  eternity. 

Then  the  four  living  creatures  said,  Amen, 
while  the  dignitaries  fell  down  and  worshiped. 

Again,  as  in  3:5,  a  heavenly  book  is 
brought  upon  the  scene.  In  conformity  with 
the  usual  type  of  ancient  book  it  was  composed 
of  a  long,  ribbon-like  sheet  of  papyrus,  rolled 
about  a  stick  fastened  to  each  end  of  the  sheet, 


13 


14 


256 


The  Revelation  of  John 


the  roll  being  secured  by  tying  or  sealing.     The 
particular  book  seen  by  John  was  secured  in 
some  mysterious  way  by  seven  different  seals, 
a  new  section  of  its  content  being  revealed  as 
each   successive   seal   was   broken.     Since   no 
one  in  all  the  universe  had  been  able  to  obtain 
the  privilege  and  the  power  to  break  any  of  the 
seals,  the  secrets  of  the  book  had  not  yet  been 
disclosed.    Apparently  John  is  aware  that  it 
is  the  book  of  doom  containing  a  record  of 
future  events  to  happen  in  connection  with 
the  end  of  the  world,  and  on  finding  its  seals 
still  intact  he  is  overcome  with  grief  at  his 
inability  to  learn  its  content.     But  one  of  the 
twenty-four  dignitaries  of  the  royal  court  con- 
soles him  with  the  information  that  Christ  has 
acquired  authority  to  break  the  magic  seals. 
His  messianic  dignity  is  suggested  by  a  refer- 
ence to  his  membership  in  the  tribe  of  Judah 
and  his  Davidic  lineage,  while  his   triumph 
over  death  and  victorious  ascent   to  heaven 
have  placed  him  in  a  position  of  authority 
second  only  to  that  of  God.     This  conqueror 
will  relieve  the  seer's  anxiety  by  opening  the 
roll  and  revealing  its  contents  for  the  reassur- 
ance of  the  persecuted  Christians.     John  is  not 
to  be  disappointed  in  the  promise  that  he  should 


Beginnings  of  Tribulation 


257 


receive  a  vision  revealing  impending  events  of 
cosmic  importance  (4:1). 

As  seen  by  John  on  this  occasion,  Christ 
assumes  the  form  of  a  lamb  occupying  a  central 
position  within  the  elaborate  structure  upon 
which   God   sits   enthroned.     The   ease   with 
which  Christ  can  be  pictured  now  in  human 
form  (i :  13),  now  as  a  lion  (5:5),  and  now  as  a 
marvelous  lamb  (5 : 6)  is  of  a  piece  with  popu- 
lar ways  of  religious  thinking  current  among 
John's    contemporaries,    who    could    similarly 
depict  Zeus  as  a  man  or  a  bull  or  any  other 
creature  that  fancy  might  suggest.     The  scars 
showing  that  the  lamb  had  once  been  offered 
in  sacrifice  served  to  identify  it  with  Christ, 
who  according  to  John's  thinking  had  endured 
a  sacrificial  death  upon  the  cross.    The  seven 
horns  and  the  seven  eyes  are  striking  features 
whose  chief  function  probably  is  ornamental. 
The  climax  is  reached  when  the  Iamb  receives 
the  book  from  God's  hand.    Thereupon  the 
entire  royal  court  breaks  forth  in  fulsome  praise 
of  the  redemptive  work  already  accomplished 
by  Christ.    By  means  of  his  sacrificial  death  he 
is  said  to  have  purchased  for  God  a  group  of  re- 
deemed people  selected  from  among  the  Jewish 
tribes,  from  Gentiles  of  different  languages, 


25^ 


The  Revelation  oj  John 


Beginnings  of  Tribulation 


259 


and  from  all  nationalities.  Such  was  the  cos- 
mopolitan character  of  the  early  Christian 
communities  even  as  they  existed  in  John's 
day.  The  members  of  these  diversified  Chris- 
tian groups  constitute  for  the  seer  a  new  king- 
dom of  sacerdotal  sanctity,  who  in  spite  of 
present  affliction  will  one  day  rule  supreme  with 
Christ  upon  earth. 

When  the  members  of  the  royal  court  end 
their  hymn  of  praise  to  Christ,  innumerable 
hosts  of  angels  take  up  the  strain,  declaring  him 
worthy  of  every  form  of  distinction.  Finally 
the  seer  in  his  vision  hears  all  creation,  all 
heavenly  existences,  all  beings  upon  the  earth, 
and  all  inhabitants  of  the  underworld  acknowl- 
edging the  undisputed  supremacy  of  both  God 
and  Christ.  Thereupon  the  scene  closes  with 
a  confirmatory  Amen  from  the  four  seraphim 
and  an  act  of  worshipful  obeisance  by  the 
twenty-four  dignitaries  of  the  royal  court. 

These  marvelous  pictures  of  God  and  Christ 
painted  by  John  as  the  opening  scenes  in  his 
revelation  of  coming  events  are  designed  to 
inspire  courage  and  confidence  in  the  minds 
of  his  readers.  With  these  scenes  of  divine 
power  and  glory  before  their  eyes,  the  seer 
would  have  them  share  his  confidence  in  the 


6:1 


ultimate  overthrow  of  the  hostile  Roman 
emperor  who  now  claims  for  himself  those 
titles  of  reverence  which  Christians  refuse  to 
ascribe  to  any  authority  except  that  of  heaven. 
Since  God  and  Christ  are  the  supreme  powers 
in  the  whole  universe.  Christians  are  sure  of 
Rome's  ultimate  overthrow  and  of  their  own 
glorious  triumph,  however  severely  they  may 
have  to  suffer  in  the  meantime. 

John  is  now  ready  to  witness  the  breaking 
of  the  seven  seals.  With  the  loosing  of  each  he 
is  to  behold,  spread  out  before  him  as  in  a  great 
picture-book,  a  panorama  of  coming  events. 

III.      BEGINNINGS   OF  DISTRESS   (6: 1-8) 

When  the  Lamb  broke  the  first  of  the  seven 
seals  I  heard  in  my  vision  the  first  of  the  four 
living  creatures  exclaiming  in  thunderous  tones, 
Come,  Then  I  saw  a  white  horse  bearing  a  rider 
equipped  with  a  bow  and  adorned  with  a  crown. 
He  rode  forth  a  conqueror  and  for  the  purpose  of 
conquering. 

And  when  the  Lamb  broke  the  second  seal  I 
heard  the  second  living  creature  exclaiming, 
Come,  Then  again  I  saw  a  red  horse  come  forth 
bearing  a  rider  who  was  given  power  to  take  away 
peace  from  the  earth  in  order  that  men  may 


w^ 


26o 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Beginnings  of  Tribulation 


261 


slaughter  one  another y  and  he  was  furnished  with 
a  great  sword. 

5  And  when  the  Lamb  broke  the  third  seal,  I 
heard  the  third  living  creature  exclaiming,  Come, 
Then  I  saw  a  black  horse  bearing  a  rider  with  a 

6  pair  of  scales  in  his  hand,  and  I  heard  a  voice 
which  seemed  to  come  from  the  midst  of  the  four 
living  creatures,  exclaiming,  A  quart  of  wheat 
for  a  denarius  and  three  quarts  of  barley  for  a 
denarius,  but  the  oil  and  the  wine  thou  shall  not 
injure. 

7  And  when  the  Lamb  broke  the  fourth  seal  I 
heard   the   voice   of  the  fourth   living   creature 

8  exclaiming.  Come.  Then  I  saw  a  horse  of  ashen 
hue  bearing  a  rider  whose  name  is  Death,  and  he 
was  attended  by  Hades.  They  were  given  author- 
ity  over  the  fourth  part  of  the  earth,  to  slay  men 
with  sword  and  with  famine  and  with  death  and 
by  means  of  the  wild  beasts  of  the  earth. 

Each  of  the  four  horsemen  seen  by  John  in 
his  vision  symbolizes  a  form  of  preliminary  af- 
fliction to  overtake  the  Roman  world  as  the  time 
for  Christ's  return  approaches.  Apocalyptic 
writers  habitually  describe  the  agonies  of  the 
last  days  in  terms  of  invasion,  civil  war,  famine, 
pestilence,  and  other  destructive  phenomena/ 

» See  above,  pp.  133  fif. 


The  language  of  Mark  13:7  f.  is  t3^ical: 

And  when  ye  shall  hear  of  wars  and  rumors  of  wars, 
be  not  troubled.  These  things  must  needs  come  to 
pass  but  the  end  is  not  yet.  For  nation  shall  rise 
against  nation  and  kingdom  against  kingdom;  there 
shall  be  earthquakes  in  divers  places;  there  shall  be 
famines.    These  things  are  the  beginning  of  travail. 

The  pictorial  representation  of  heavenly  horse- 
men was  also  an  impressive  form  of  symbolism 
current  in  both  Jewish  and  gentile  circles. 
Certain  elements  in  John's  vision  apparently 
were  suggested  by  the  language  of  Zechariah,* 
but  probably  other  features  of  the  picture  were 
derived  from  current  descriptions  of  astral 
deities  popularly  represented  among  the  Gen- 
tiles as  horsemen  riding  in  the  skies. 

The  breaking  of  each  seal  is  accompanied  by 
a  loud  shout  from  one  of  the  living  creatures, 
summoning  the  apocalyptic  horsemen  to  appear 
successively  upon  the  scene.  The  white  horse 
with  its  crowned  rider  accoutered  for  victory  is 
prophetic  of  some  foreign  invader  whose 
triumph  over  Rome  will  mark  an  initial  stage 
in  the  course  of  disasters  ultimately  to  cul- 
minate in  the  complete  overthrow  of  the  Empire 
by  Christ.    Probably  John  has  in  mind  an 

«Zech.  1:8;  6:1-8;  see  also  II  Mace.  3:25;  Josephus 
War  VI.  V.  3  (298);  Sib.  Or.  iii.  805  ff. 


V 


0»\ 


262 


The  Revelation  of  John 


invasion  by  the  Parthians  or  other  hostile 
peoples  from  the  east,  who  are  expected  to  hurl 
themselves  furiously  against  Rome.  The  red 
horse  and  the  sword  carried  by  its  rider  are  still 
more  vivid  symbols  of  the  strife  and  bloodshed 
to  overtake  the  Empire.  The  black  horse 
typifies  a  period  of  famine,  when  food  would 
become  so  scarce  that  a  quart  of  wheat,  the 
standard  daily  ration  for  one  person,  would 
increase  to  twelve  times  its  normal  price.  The 
cost  of  even  the  coarser  barley  meal  would 
similarly  advance  to  a  denarius,  which  was  the 
daily  wage  of  the  workingman,  according  to 
Matt.  20:2.  In  actual  value  the  denarius  was 
approximately  twenty  cents,  but  under  normal 
conditions  its  purchasing  power  was  as  great 
as  or  greater  than  that  of  the  modern  dollar.' 
The  command  to  leave  the  oil  and  wine  un- 
harmed seems  to  be  a  vague  allusion  to  Domi- 
tian's  controversy  with  the  people  of  Asia  over 
the  edict  to  prohibit  the  cultivation  of  the  vine 
in  the  province.'    Oil  and  wine  were  the  char- 

*  For  a  description  of  the  economic  situation  in  the  Roman 
Empire,  though  a  couple  of  centuries  after  John's  day,  see  F.  F. 
Abbott,  The  Common  People  of  Ancient  Rome  (New  York: 
Scribner,  191 1),  pp.  145-78;  also  W.  S.  Davis,  The  Influence  of 
Wealth  in  Imperial  Rome  (New  York:  Macmillan,  1910). 

'  See  above,  p.  54. 


Beginnings  of  Tribulation 


263 


acteristic  luxuries  of  the  rich.  Therefore  it 
may  well  have  seemed  to  John  that  an  appro- 
priate feature  of  the  final  distress  would  be  an 
aggravated  indulgence  of  pleasure  among  the 
rich,  while  the  more  substantial  staple  articles 
of  food  were  becoming  almost  unattainable  for 
the  masses.  Such  a  view  was  in  full  agreement 
with  the  denunciation  of  worldly  possessions  so 
vigorously  made  in  certain  of  John's  letters  to 
the  churches.  The  fourth  horse  signifies  death 
in  general.  It  is  pale  like  a  corpse  in  color,  and 
is  ridden  by  Death,  whom  the  ancients  often 
regard  as  a  person  dwelling  in  the  underworld. 
'  His  attendant  is  Hades,  another  demonic  power 
of  the  lower  regions  who  drags  off  to  his  own 
abode  the  souls  of  those  persons  whom  Death 
has  slain.  This  realistic  imagery  was  both 
familiar  and  acceptable  to  John  and  his  readers. 

IV.      PROMISE   OF   JUDGMENT    (6:9-17) 

6:9  When  the  Lamb  broke  the  fifth  seal  I  saw 
beneath  the  altar  the  souls  of  those  who  had  been 
slaughtered  for  their  loyalty  to  the  word  of  God 
and  their  adherence  to  the  testimony  which  they 
10  possessed.  And  they  cried  out  with  a  loud  voice: 
0  holy  and  genuine  Lord,  how  long  will  it  be 
before  you  bring  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth  to 


l&l 


264 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Beginnings  of  Tribulation 


265 


judgment   and   wreak   vengeance   on   them  for 

11  shedding  our  blood?  Then  a  white  robe  was 
granted  to  each  of  the  martyrs  and  they  were  told 
that  they  must  patiently  wait  yet  a  little  while 
longer  until  the  number  of  their  fellow  servants 
and  brethren  who  were  presently  to  be  slain,  even 
as  they  had  been,  should  also  be  completed, 

12  And  when  the  Lamb  opened  the  sixth  seal  again 
I  saw  a  vision.  A  great  earthquake  occurred, 
the  sun  became  black  as  a  mourner^ s  robe,  the 
whole  face  of  the  moon  took  on  a  blood-like  color, 

13  the  stars  of  the  sky  fell  upon  the  earth  even  as  a 
fig  tree  drops  its  unripe  fruit  when  shaken  by  a 

14  wind,  the  vault  of  heaven  was  parted  asunder  and 
rolled  up  like  a  book-roll,  and  every  mountain  and 

15  island  was  removed  from  its  place.  The  kings 
of  the  earth,  the  members  of  the  royal  court,  the 
military  authorities,  the  rich,  the  athletes,  and 
every  slave  and  freeman  concealed  themselves  in 
the  caves  and  among  the  rocks  of  the  mountains. 

16  And  they  cried  to  the  mountains  and  the  rocks: 
Fall  on  us  and  conceal  us  from  the  sight  of  him 
who  occupies  the  throne,  and  from  the  wrath  of  the 

17  Lamb,  because  the  great  day  of  their  wrath  has 
come,  and  who  is  able  to  survive  ? 

Turning  from  his  vision  of  Death  and  Hades 
(6:8),  John  sees  another  picture  assuring  him 


that  those  Christians  who  have  been  slain  for 
adhering  to  the  word  of  God  and  to  the  instruc- 
tion received  from  Christ  have  not  been  carried 
off  to  the  lower  world  but  have  been  given  a 
favored  position  in  heaven.  The  exact  identity 
of  these  martyrs  is  not  specified,  but  evidently 
John  has  in  mind  those  Christians  who  have 
died  in  loyalty  to  the  new  religion.  Antipas 
would  be  in  the  company  (2:13),  also  the 
victims  of  the  Neronian  persecution,  and  any 
others  who  might  have  been  slain  for  their  faith. 
Beneath  the  heavenly  altar  their  souls  repose 
in  safety.  Probably  John  and  his  readers 
found  a  peculiar  significance  in  this  location. 
Just  as  the  life-blood  of  the  victim  offered  in 
earthly  sacrifices  flowed  down  to  the  base  of 
the  altar,  so  the  souls  of  the  slaughtered  saints 
rested  beneath  the  altar  in  heaven.  Their  cry 
for  vengeance  is  addressed  to  the  holy  God  who 
is  truly  Lord  in  contrast  with  the  blasphemous 
Caesar  who  falsely  lays  claim  to  this  title.' 
For  the  present  they  must  be  content  with  the 
gift  of  a  white  robe,  but  only  a  short  time  will 
elapse  before  God  is  to  execute  upon  Rome  the 

'  True,  John  here  uses  b&nrbrri^  rather  than  the  more  common 
Kbpiosj  but  the  former  word  occurs  in  Josephus  {Ant.  XVIII. 
i.  6;  War  VII.  x.  i)  referring  to  the  lordship  of  Caesar,  and 
probably  this  usage  was  common  among  Greek-speaking  Jews. 


y 


266 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Beginnings  of  Trihulatton 


267 


91',, 


judgment  for  which  the  martyrs  ^lead.  The 
predestined  number  of  the  martyred  saints 
must  be  filled  up  before  God  will  act,  but  John 
expects  an  early  completion  of  the  number  as 
a  result  of  impending  persecutions  under 
Domitian  and  his  immediate  successors.  The 
period  of  waiting  is  to  endure  only  "a  little 
while  longer."  It  was  a  characteristic  feature 
of  Jewish  apocalyptic  thinking  to  assume  that 
God  had  foreordained  a  certain  number  of 
martyrdoms  which  must  be  accomplished  before 
he  would  intervene  to  bring  an  end  to  the 
present  evil  age.' 

Answering  the  martyrs'  cry  for  vengeance, 
John's  next  vision  reveals  the  calamities  that 
await  the  wicked  in  the  day  of  judgment.  The 
picture  exhibits  those  violent  convulsions  in 
nature  which  frequently  recur,  in  Jewish  and 
early  Christian  descriptions  of  events  to  occur 
as  the  end  of  the  present  world  draws  near." 
To  this  stereotyped  apocalyptic  imagery  of  his 
predecessors  John  adds  a  vivid  description  of 
the  fate  awaiting  the  pagan  world  and  its 
inhabitants.    Not  only  will  the  earth  be  shaken 

'  I  En.  47 : 4;  Bar.  23 : 5 ;    IV  Ezra  4 :  33-43. 
*Isa.  2:10  f.,  19,  21;    Ezek.  32:7f.;    Joel  2:iof.,  30  f.; 
IV  Ezra  6:i4ff.;  Sib.  Or.  iii.  80  ff.;  Mark  13:24!. 


to  its  foundations  and  the  light  of  the  sky  be 
darkened,  but  the  partition  separating  heaven 
from  earth  will  be  torn  asunder  and  rolled  up 
just  as  the  ribbon-like  papyrus  constituting 
the  ancient  book  was  wound  about  the  stick 
to  which  it  was  fastened.  With  the  heavenly 
firmament  thus  removed,  the  enthroned  God 
and  the  glorified  Lamb  could  look  directly 
down  upon  the  human  objects  of  their  wrath. 
Then  terrified  mortals,  unable  to  endure  the 
sight,  would  hastily  strive  to  secrete  themselves 
among  the  debris  of  the  shattered  earth.  All 
the  various  classes  of  heathen  society,  from 
kings  to  slaves,  would  vainly  seek  a  way  of 
escape  from  the  wrath  of  divine  judgment. 
This  picture  convinces  John  that  the  Christian 
martyrs'  cry  for  vengeance  will  not  be  in  vain. 

v.      SEALING  OF  THE  FAITHFUL  ISRAELITES 

(7:1-8) 

7 : 1  Afterwards  I  saw  four  angels  standing  at  the 
four  corners  of  the  earth  restraining  the  four  winds 
of  the  earth  in  order  that  no  wind  should  blow  either 
upon  the  earth  or  upon  the  sea  or  upon  any  tree, 
2  And  I  saw  another  angel  ascending  from  the  east 
with  a  signet  of  the  living  God,  and  he  shouted 
with  a  loud  voice  to  the  four  angels  who  had  it  in 


I 


k 


268 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Beginnings  of  Tribulation 


269 


3  their  power  to  harm  the  earth  and  the  sea:  Do  no 
injury  to  the  earth  or  the  sea  or  the  trees  until 
we  have  set  a  seal  upon  the  foreheads  of  God^s 

4  servants.  Also  I  heard  the  number  of  those  who 
were  sealed,  their  being  in  all  one  hundred  and 
forty-four  thousand  from  the  different  tribes  of 

5  the  sons  of  Israel,  There  were  twelve  thousand 
from  the  tribe  of  Judah,  twelve  thousand  from  the 
tribe  of  Reuben,  twelve  thousand  from  the  tribe 

6  of  Gad,  twelve  thousand  from  the  tribe  of  As  her, 
twelve  thousand  from  the  tribe  of  Naphtali,  twelve 

7  thousand  from  the  tribe  of  Manasseh,  twelve  thou- 
sand from  the  tribe  of  Symeon,  twelve  thousand 
from  the  tribe  of  Levi,  twelve  thousand  from 

8  the  tribe  of  Issachar,  twelve  thousand  from  the 
tribe  of  Zebulun,  twelve  thousand  from  the 
tribe  of  Joseph,  twelve  thousand  from  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin, 

While  waiting  for  the  opening  of  the  seventh 
seal  John  is  permitted  to  gaze  upon  two  very 
reassuring  pictures  (7:1-8  and  7:9-17),  which 
set  the  future  safety  of  the  righteous  into  sharp 
contrast  with  the  fate  of  the  wicked  just  dis- 
closed by  the  breaking  of  the  sixth  seal  (6:12- 
17).  In  the  first  of  these  new  visions  the 
scenery  presents  ideas  especially  characteristic 
of  that  age.    The  earth  is  assumed  to  be  a  plane 


with  four  special  angels  stationed  respectively 
at  its  northern,  eastern,  southern,  and  western 
extremities.     The  winds  are  regarded  as  harm- 
ful \  powers  subservient  to  the  will  of  these 
governing  angels.    John's  picture  indicates  that 
in  the  period  of  tribulation  the  winds  will  con- 
tribute their  share  to  the  general  devastation. 
But  before  they  are  let  loose  upon  their  mission 
a  fifth  angel  will  appear,  coming  through  the 
bell-shaped  vault  of  the  sky  at  an  opening  in 
the  east,  where  the  sun  makes  its  daily  entrance. 
This  special  angeUc  messenger  is  to  place  the 
seal  of  God  upon  all  those  IsraeUtes  who  are 
destined  to  survive  the  destruction  of  the  world. 
These  will  be  Jews  who,  like  John,  have  accepted 
Christianity  and  therefore  merit  the  peculiar 
favor  of  God.    Ultimately  this  number  will 
aggregate   just   one   hundred   and   forty-four 
thousand,  and  they  are  to  receive  on  their  fore- 
heads God's  special  stamp  in  order  that  their 
safety  may  be  made  doubly  secure.    As  their 
forefathers  in  Egypt  had  been  protected  by  the 
mark  on  the  doorpost,  so  by  a  magical  imprint 
of  the  divine  signet  upon  their  foreheads  they 
will  be  rendered  immune  from  the  terrors  of 
the  last  tribulation.    In  listing  the  twelve  tribes 
John  omits  Dan,  thus  following  as  he  so  often 


270 


The  Revelation  of  John 


does  a  later  form  of  Jewish  tradition  rather 
than  the  biblical  narrative. 

VI.      STATUS  OF  THE  REDEEMED   (7:9-17) 

7:9  Afterwards  L  beheld  a  vision  of  an  innumer- 
able multitude  of  persons  from  all  nations,  tribes y 
peoples,  and  languages.  Clad  in  white  robes  and 
carrying  palm  branches  in  their  hands,  they  stood 
before  the  throne  and  before  the  Lamb,  and  they 

10  exclaimed  in  a  loud  voice:  Salvation  belongs  to 
our  God  who  occupies  the  throne,  and  to  the  Lamb, 

11  Then  all  the  angels  took  their  stand  in  a  circle 
about  the  throne  and  about  the  dignitaries  and 
about  the  four  living  creatures,  and  prostrating 
themselves  before  the  throne  they  worshiped  God, 

12  exclaiming:  Truly  blessing  and  glory  and  wisdom 
and  thanksgiving  and  honor  and  power  and 
strength  belong  to  our  God  throughout  eternity. 

Amen, 

13  Then  one  of  the  dignitaries  asked  me:  Who 
are  these  persons  clad  in  the  white  robes,  and 

14  whence  came  they  ?  I  answered  him:  You  know, 
my  lord.  And  he  said  to  m^:  These  are  they 
who  come  through  the  period  of  final  distress, 
having  washed  their  robes  and  made  them  white 

15  in  the  blood  of  the  Lamb,  For  this  reason  they 
are  stationed  before  the  throne  of  God  rendering 


Beginnings  of  Tribulation 


271 


him  worshipful  service  day  and  night  in  his 
temple,  and  he  who  occupies  the  throne  will  over- 
ly shadow  them  as  a  tent,  Neoer  again  will  they 
suffer  either  hunger  or  thirst,  and  neither  the  sun 
17  nor  any  scorching  heat  will  afflict  them,  for  the 
Lamb  stationed  in  the  midst  of  the  throne  will  be 
their  shepherd  leading  them  to  springs  of  living 
water  and  God  will  dry  their  eyes  of  every  tear. 

Following  the  vision  which  assured  John 
that  a  select  group  of  Jewish  Christians  would 
be  saved,  his  gaze  is  directed  toward  a  new  scene 
where  the  blessed  status  of  all  the  redeemed  is 
depicted.  In  this  company  are  Christians 
gathered  from  among  all  the  different  national- 
ities that  were  mingling  in  the  syncretistic  life 
of  the  Mediterranean  World.  Probably  the 
sealed  Israelites  previously  described  are  also 
included  in  this  new  company.  It  is  an  innu- 
merable multitude  which  apparently  embraces 
the  entire  membership  of  Christendom  as  saved 
from  the  final  catastrophic  destruction  of  the 
world  and  permanently  inducted  into  the 
blessings  of  the  new  age.  The  redeemed  give 
God  and  Christ  the  glory  for  having  accom- 
plished their  salvation,  while  the  angelic  choir 
responds  with  a  characteristic  outburst  of 
praise,  as  in  4:11  and  5: 12  f. 


I 


272 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  seer's  attention  is  directed  especially 
to  the  fact  that  this  innumerable  throng 
equipped  with  the  insignia  of  a  triumphal 
procession  has  passed  safely  through  the  period 
of  final  distress,  the  great  tribulation,  which 
is  to  overtake  the  world  in  the  last  times. 
In  a  subsequent  portion  of  his  book  John 
is  to  describe  more  at  length  the  agonies  of 
the  final  tribulation  and  the  glories  of  the 
new  Jerusalem.  But  up  to  this  point  his 
visions  have  been  mainly  a  message  of  re- 
assurance in  view  of  the  trials  through 
which  Christians  must  pass  before  attaining 
to  this  condition  of  bliss.  It  was  quite  fitting 
that  the  final  status  of  the  redeemed  should 
be  exhibited  here  as  a  future  certainty,  thus 
strengthening  Christians  to  face  the  prospect 
of  approaching  distresses  to  be  revealed  more 
particularly  with  the  opening  of  the  seventh 
seal.  The  seer  has  reminded  his  fellow-believers 
that  God  sits  enthroned  in  the  heaven  holding 
all  the  forces  of  the  universe  under  his  control. 
There  •  also  Christ  abides,  endowed  with  an 
authority  second  only  to  that  of  God.  Hence 
the  pagan  world  is  surely  destined  for  destruc- 
tion, when  judgment  will  be  executed  upon 
sinners  and  the  sufferings  of  the  righteous  will 


Beginnings  of  Tribulation 


273 


be  avenged.  The  ultimate  safety  of  the  saints 
is  sure,  however  severe  may  be  their  afflictions 
in  the  meantime,  and  the  final  reward  of  all  the 
redeemed  is  a  bhssf  ul  association  with  God  and 
Christ  in  the  new  order  of  existence  to  supersede 
the  present  regime  under  which  John  and  his 
persecuted  brethren  were  living  when  he  wrote. 

Vn.      PREPARATION  FOR  NEW  DISTRESSES 

(8:1-6) 

8 : 1        When  the  Lamb  opened  the  seventh  seal,  silence 

2  prevailed  in  heaven  for  about  half  an  hour.  Then 
I  saw  seven  trumpets  given  to  the  seven  angels 

3  that  stand  before  God,  Also  another  angel  carry- 
ing a  gold  censer  came  and  took  his  stand  at  the 
altar.  He  was  provided  with  much  incense  in 
order  that  he  might  offer  it  at  the  altar  of  gold  in 
the  presence  of  God  on  behalf  of  the  prayers  of  all 

4  the  saints.  And  the  smoke  of  the  incense  from 
the  hand  of  the  angel  went  up  before  God  on  behalf 

5  of  the  prayers  of  the  saints.  Taking  his  censer 
the  angel  filled  it  with  burning  coals  from  the 
altar  and  cast  them  upon  the  earth.  Then 
followed    pealing    thunders,   terrifying    sounds, 

6  flashing  lightnings,  and  an  earthquake.  There- 
upon the  seven  angels  with  the  seven  trumpets 
made  ready  to  blow  their  trumpets. 


\ 


jj* 


•2'^ 


274 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Beginnings  of  Tribulation 


275 


In   the   immediately   preceding  scene   the 
praises  of  the  angelic  host  had  loudly  rever- 
berated through  the  chambers  of  heaven  (7:12). 
As  the  sound  died  away  a  half-hour  of  ominous 
silence  reigned,  a  fitting  prelude  to  the  staging 
of  new  scenes  in  the  description  of  still  greater 
tribulations.     God's  dwelling-place  in  heaven  is 
supposed  to  be  equipped  not  only  with  a  temple 
proper/  but  also  with  an  altar  of  burnt  offer- 
ing,' and  an  altar  of  incense^  similar  to  those 
which  had  been  employed  upon  earth  in  the 
Jewish  ritual.    At  the  heavenly  altar  an  angel 
burns  a  large  quantity  of  incense  in  order  that 
God  may  be  reminded  of  the  prayers  which  the 
saints  as  well  as  the  martyrs  (6 :  10)  are  sending 
up  to  heaven,  begging  for  vengeance  upon  their 
enemies.    On  a  previous  occasion  these  prayers 
had  been  vividly  called  incense  itself   (5:8). 
SymboUc  of  the  disasters  soon  to  overtake  a 
decadent  and  wicked  world,  John  sees  the  angel 
take  fire  from  the  altar  and  throw  it  upon  the 
earth.    Thereupon   the   silence   of   heaven   is 
broken  by  the  frightful  display  of  a  thunder- 
storm and  the  terrors  of  an  earthquake.    The 
angels  with  trumpets  take  their  places  ready 

»Rev.  3:12;  7:15;  11:19;  i4:iS»i7;  ^S'S^-\  16:1,17. 
«Rev.  6:9;  Exod.  38:1-7.        »Rev.  8:  3;  Exod.  37:25-29. 


« 


to  give  the  signal  for  revealing  to  the  seer  a 
new  succession  of  disasters  to  occur  as  the  days 
of  unrelieved  tribulation  move  on  to  a  climax. 

Vni.      CONVULSIONS  IN  NATURE    (8:7-13) 

8 : 7  When  the  first  angel  blew  his  trumpet  there 
followed  a  storm  of  hail  and  fire  mixed  with  blood 
falling  upon  the  earth.  The  flames  consumed 
the  third  part  of  the  earth  and  the  third  part  of 

8  the  trees  and  all  green  grass.  When  the  second 
angel  blew  his  trumpet  an  object  resembling  a  great 
mountain  all  aflame  was  cast  into  the  sea  and  the 

9  third  part  of  the  sea  turned  into  blood,  the  third 
part  of  all  the  living  creatures  in  the  sea  died,  and 

10  the  third  of  all  ships  perished.  When  the  third 
angel  blew  his  trumpet  a  great  star  flaming  like  a 
torch  descended  from  the  sky,  falling  upon  the 
third  part  of  the  rivers  and  upon  the  sources  of 

1 1  the  waters.  The  star  is  called  Wormwood.  The 
third  part  of  the  waters  turned  to  wormwood,  and 
great  numbers  of  men  died  from  drinking  the 

12  waters  because  they  had  been  poisoned.  When 
the  fourth  angel  blew  his  trumpet  the  third  part 
of  the  sun  and  the  third  part  of  the  moon  and  the 
third  part  of  the  stars  ixjere  smitten  so  that  the  third 
part  of  them  was  darkened  and  the  third  part  of 
the  day  as  of  the  night  was  without  light. 


276 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Beginnings  of  Tribulation 


277 


13  Then  in  my  vision  I  heard  an  eagle  flying  in 
mid-air  exclaim  with  a  loud  voice:  Woe,  woe, 
woe  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth  because  of  the 
remaining  trumpet-blasts  of  the  three  angels  who 
are  about  to  blow  their  trumpets. 

In  rapid  succession  the  first  four  angels 
blow  upon  their  trumpets  and  John  is  shown 
four  scenes  disclosing  a  series  of  convulsions 
in  nature.  This  imagery  is  in  accord  with 
characteristic  views  of  apocalyptic  writers  to 
the  effect  that  not  only  mankind  but  the  physi- 
cal world  itself  will  be  overtaken  by  confusion 
and  destruction  as  the  end  approaches.  The 
first  disaster  is  pictured  in  the  form  of  a 
devastating  hailstorm  accompanied  by  livid 
flashes  of  blood-red  lightning.  The  second 
picture  represents  an  uprooted  volcano  while 
in  active  eruption  cast  into  the  sea.  The  third 
preliminary  affliction  is  to  result  from  the  falling 
of  a  star  that  embitters  and  poisons  the  fresh 
waters  of  the  earth,  thus  causing  death  to 
many  persons.  The  luminaries  of  the  sky  are 
also  to  be  affected  by  this  initial  process  of 
disintegration.  Not  only  is  one-third  of  their 
brilliancy  lost,  but  apparently  also  the  time  of 
their  shining  is  reduced  to  two-thirds  of  its 
usual  duration. 


The  descriptive  features  of  these   scenes 
embrace   items   that   probably   were   derived 
from  various  sources.    Certain  elements  of  the 
imagery   recall    the   plagues    that   had   been 
inflicted  upon  the  Egyptians.    But  other  items 
in  the  description  seem  to  have  been   sug- 
gested by  dreaded  meteorological  and  physical 
phenomena  especially  familiar  to  the  people 
inhabiting  those  volcanic  regions.    Violent  elec- 
tric storms,   shooting  stars,  or  comets  were 
objects  of  peculiar  horror  among  the  common 
people  of  the  ancient  world.    Western  Asia 
Minor  in  particular  had  been  visited  frequently 
by  disastrous  earthquakes  and  terrifying  vol- 
canic eruptions.    Probably  the  falling  star  was 
suggested  by  the  phenomenon  of  a  meteor  or 
comet,  and  this  astral  wormwood,  in  compari- 
son with  the  natural  variety,  is  not  only  bitter 
but  also  poisonous.     Yet  the  ordinary  worm- 
wood sometimes  seems  to  have  been  regarded 
as  a  poison  among  the  Hebrews.' 

The  four  disasters  thus  far  described  are 
relatively  light  afflictions,  affecting  particularly 
the  earth,  the  waters,  and  the  sky.  The  dis- 
tresses that  remain  to  be  portrayed  exhibit  more 
vividly  the  intervention  of  terrible  demonic 

'Deut.  29:18;  Jer.9:i5;  23:15. 


278 


The  Revelation  of  John 


I 


agencies  who  direct  their  activities  especially 
against  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth.  The  eagle 
brought  upon  the  scene  at  this  point  serves  to 
call  attention  to  this  aggravation  of  evils  that 
are  to  emerge  as  the  period  of  tribulation  pro- 
ceeds to  a  more  advanced  stage. 

DC.      LOCUSTS  FROM  THE  ABYSS   (9:1-12) 

9 : 1  When  the  fifth  angel  blew  his  trumpet  I  saw 
a  star  which  had  fallen  from  the  sky  to  the  earth. 
This  astral  being  had  the  key  of  the  passage  to 

2  the  abyss  J  and  when  he  opened  the  passage  to  the 
abyss  there  came  up  from  the  passage  dense  smoke, 
like  smoke  out  of  a  huge  furnace,  which  obscured 

3  the  sun  and  filled  the  air  with  blackness.  Out  of 
the  smoke  came  forth  locusts  upon  the  earth,  but 
they  possessed  powers  like  those  of  the  common 

4  scorpion.  They  were  told  not  to  injure  the  grass 
of  the  earth  or  any  green  plant  or  any  tree,  but 
only  those  persons  who  do  not  have  the  seal  of 

5  God  upon  their  foreheads.  Yet  they  were  not 
permitted  to  kill  men  outright,  but  only  to  afflict 
them  for  five  months.     This  affliction  was  like 

6  the  bite  of  a  scorpion  when  it  stings  a  man. 
And  in  those  days  men  will  seek  death  but  never 
find  it;  they  will  desire  to  die,  but  death  flees 
from  them. 


Beginnings  of  Tribulation 


279 


7  In  appearance  the  locusts  resembled  horses 
equipped  for  battle.  On  their  heads  were  orna- 
ments resembling  crowns  of  gold,  their  faces  were 

8  like  the  faces  of  men,  they  had  hair  like  a  woman's, 

9  and  their  teeth  were  like  those  of  lions.  They  had 
scaly  bodies  resembling  breastplates  of  iron,  and 
the  noise  made  by  their  wings  was  like  the  sound 
of  chariots  drawn  by  many  horses  hastening  to 

10  battle.  They  had  tails  like  those  of  scorpions, 
and  stings  in  their  tails  which  enabled  them  to 

T I  afflict  men  for  five  months.  They  had  over  them 
as  king  the  angel  of  the  abyss  whose  name  in 
Hebrew  is  Abaddon,  but  in  Greek  he  is  named 
Apollyon. 

12  The  first  woe  is  completed,  but  behold  there  are 
two  woes  yet  to  follow. 

The  picture  of  the  abyss  emitting  dense 
clouds  of  smoke  infested  with  fearful  demonic 
locusts  easily  fitted  into  the  popular  notions 
of  John^s  day.  Beneath  the  earth  there  was 
assumed  to  be  an  underworld  at  least  part 
of  which  was  called  the  abyss,  a  horrid,  fiery 
region  inhabited  by  Satanic  powers,  even  as 
heaven  was  inhabited  by  God  and  his  angels. 
The  entrance  to  the  abyss  was  supposed  to 
be  through  a  pit  or  shaft  leading  downward, 
like   the   crater   of   a   volcano.    At  ordinary 


28o 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Beginnings  of  Tribulation 


281 


times  the  mouth  of  this  shaft  was  thought 
to  be  closed  by  a  great  lid  tightly  sealed 
or  locked,  thus  preventing  the  more  terrible 
demons  from  swarming  forth  upon  the  earth. 
Sometimes  the  entrance  was  said  to  be  guarded 
by  an  angel  similar  to  the  one  described  by 
John.  The  fumes  which  emerged  from  the 
mouth  of  the  shaft  when  opened  by  the  angel 
vividly  exaggerate  the  phenomena  of  poisonous 
vapors  and  volcanic  eruptions  so  well  known 
in  those  regions. 

In  contrast  with  the  destruction  of  vegeta- 
tion wrought  by  the  ordinary  locusts,  those 
described  by  John  will  devote  themselves 
exclusively  to  the  torture  of  mankind.  These 
demonic  pests  have  stings  like  a  scorpion,  an 
animal  notorious  for  its  venomous  bite.  For 
five  months  of  the  great  tribulation  men  will 
be  afflicted  by  this  inescapable  scourge.  Only 
those  who  have  the  seal  of  God  stamped  upon 
their  foreheads  will  be  immune.  Previously 
John  mentioned  only  Jewish  Christians  as  thus 
marked  (7:45.),  but  in  this  later  connection 
he  probably  assumes  such  protection  for  all 
Christians.  Why  the  plague  is  to  endure  just 
five  months  is  not  indicated.  Perhaps  this 
time  was  chosen  because  it  corresponded  with 


that  portion  of  the  year  during  which  the  com- 
mon locust  might  appear  sporadically,  and  the 
terribleness  of  the  infernal  species  is  heightened 
by  stating  that  it  will  be  active  throughout 
the  entire  period. 

The  terror  of  the  anticipated  visitation  is 
increased  by  John's  vivid  description  of  these 
creatures'  appearance.  No  fabulous  monster 
of  antiquity  ever  presented  a  more  forbidding 
aspect.  Certain  traits  in  the  description  are 
derived  from  the  account  of  hostile  horsemen 
and  chariots  in  Joel  2 : 4  f .  But  as  a  whole  the 
imagery  is  probably  a  composite  from  different 
sources  of  ancient  mythological  fancy.  These 
strange  locusts  are  thought  by  John  really  to 
be  demonic  creatures  who,  like  the  angels  of 
heaven,  have  power  to  assume  different  shapes 
according  to  the  necessities  of  their  mission. 
On  this  particular  occasion  they  also  have  a 
leader  whose  name  seems  to  mean  destruction. 
Abaddon  is  an  equivalent  for  Sheol,  the  com- 
mon Hebrew  name  of  the  underworld,  but  the 
more  exact  Greek  rendering  of  Abaddon  would 
be  Apoleia  ("destruction").  Perhaps  the  form 
used  by  John,  Apollyon  ("destroyer"),  was  in- 
tended to  serve  better  as  a  gibe  at  the  Greek 
god  Apollo. 


282 


The  Revelation  of  John 


X.      A   SCOURGE  FROM  THE  EAST   (9:13-21) 

9:13        When  the  sixth  angel  blew  his  trumpet  I 
heard  a  certain  voice,  which  emanated  from  the 

14  horns  of  the  gold  altar  in  the  presence  of  God,  say 
to  the  sixth  angel  who  had- the  trumpet:  Release 
the  four  angels  who  are  held  in  bonds  at  the  great 

15  river  Euphrates.  Then  the  four  angels  who  stood 
prepared  for  this  hour  and  day  and  month  and 
year  were  released  in  order  that  they  should  kill 

16  the  third  part  of  mankind.  The  number  of  the 
cavalrymen  was  two  hundred  million,    I  heard 

1 7  their  number.  The  horses  with  their  riders  which 
I  saw  in  my  vision  looked  thus:  They  had  breast- 
plates that  flashed  with  fiery  red,  deep  blue,  atid 
bright  yellow  colors.  The  heads  of  the  horses 
resembled  lions^  heads,  while  from  their  mouths 
streamed  fire  and  smoke  and  sulphurous  fumes. 

18  By  means  of  these  three  plagues  of  fire  and  smoke 
and  sulphurous  fumes  that  streamed  from  their 
mouths,    the   third   part   of  mankind  perished. 

19  For  the  destructive  power  of  the  horses  is  in  their 
mouths,  and  also  in  their  tails,  for  their  serpent- 
like tails  have  heads  with  which  they  do  harm. 

20  But  the  remainder  of  mankind  who  survived 
these  plagues  did  not  turn  away  from  the  creations 
of  their  own  hands  by  ceasing  to  worship  the 
demons  and  the  images  of  gold,  silver,  bronze. 


Beginnings  of  Tribulation 


283 


stone,  and  wood,  which  are  unable  either  to  see 
21  or  to  hear  or  to  walk;  nor  did  they  turn  away  from 
their    murders,    their    magical    practices,    their 
fornication,  or  their  thefts. 

In  the  visions  of  an  apocalyptic  seer  it  is  as 
easy  for  the  horns  of  an  altar  to  utter  a  voice 
as  for  animals  or  trees  to  speak  in  fairy  tales. 
In  this  way  John  learns  about  four  angels  that 
had  been  chained  on  the  eastern  frontier  of 
the  Roman  Empire,  and  there  held  in  readiness 
to  enter  upon  their  destructive  mission  at  the 
appointed  moment  for  their  part  in  the 
great  tribulation  to  be  performed.  These  four 
demonic  leaders  are  to  assemble  a  vast  host  of 
cavalry  that  will  swoop  down  upon  the  Empire 
and  destroy  one-third  of  its  population.  The 
fabulous  creatures  described  in  this  picture  com- 
bine the  fantastic  notions  of  current  popular 
beliefs  and  traditional  characteristics.  In  some 
respects  they  are  modeled  after  the  pattern 
of  the  infernal  locusts  recently  described  by 
John.  The  picture  has  also  received  coloring 
from  the  dread  in  which  the  peoples  of  the 
eastern  Mediterranean  held  the  wild  and  half- 
mythical  Parthians,  or  other  fierce  peoples  of 
the  East,  who  were  a  constant  menace  to  the 
Empire. 


284 


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Beginnings  of  Tribulation 


28s 


Notwithstanding  the  dreadfulness  of  this 
scourge,  John  does  not  look  for  any  repentance 
on  the  part  of  the  heathen  who  survive.  They 
will  not  forsake  their  customary  idolatrous 
ways.  The  accusations  which  he  brings  against 
them  are  practically  identical  with  those  of  his 
Jewish  predecessors  who  affirmed  that  the 
gentile  gods  were  demons  and  that  it  was  utter 
folly  to  worship  dead  images  created  by  human 
hands.  Jews  also  conunonly  alleged  that  the 
religion  of  the  heathen  was  a  mass  of  gross 
*         immoralities. 

XI.      A  PROMISE  OF  THE  END   (10:1-7) 

10:1  Again  I  saw  a  powerful  angel  descend  from 
heaven.  He  was  clothed  in  a  cloudy  the  rainbow 
formed  a  halo  about  his  heady  his  face  was  radiant 

2  as  the  suny  his  legs  were  like  pillars  of  firCy  and  he 
held  a  little  book-roll  open  in  his  hand.  Stand- 
ing  with  his  right  foot  upon  the  sea  and  his  left 

3  upon  the  earthy  he  uttered  a  loud  shout  like  the 
roar  of  a  lion.    And  when  he  shouted  the  seven 

4  thunders  raised  their  voices.  As  I  was  about  to 
record  what  the  seven  thunders  said,  I  heard  a 
voice  from  heaven  saying.  Conceal  what  the  seven 

5  thunders  said  and  do  not  record  it.  Then  the 
angel  which  I  saw  standing  upon  the  sea  and 


upon  the  earthy  raising  his  right  hand  toward 

6  heaven  swore  by  him  who  lives  throughout  eternity , 
who  created  the  heaven  and  the  earth  and  the  sea 
and  the  things  contained  in  themy  that  the  period 

7  of  waiting  will  continue  no  longer,  but  at  the  time 
when  the  seventh  angd  sounds  the  trumpet  which 
he  is  about  to  blow,  then  will  be  fulfilled  the 
mysterious  period  of  God^s  waiting,  as  he  has 
announced  its  fulfillment  to  his  servants  the 
prophets. 

The  strain  of  gazing  upon  the  increasing 
distresses  of  the  great  tribulation  is  temporarily 
relieved  by  a  new  scene  parenthetically  inter- 
jected at  this  point  to  assure  John  that  God's 
seeming  indifference  to  the  sufferings  of  the 
righteous  is  nearing  a  close.  When  the  time 
arrives  for  the  seventh  angel  to  blow  his 
trumpet,  then  a  new  series  of  visions  will 
emerge  showing  John  the  beginnings  of  divine 
intervention  to  lead  up  to  the  final  outcome  of 
the  conflict  between  God  and  Satan.  The 
mysterious  period  of  waiting  for  God  to  act 
is  taken  over  into  John's  thinking  from  the 
prophetic  utterances  of  his  apocalyptic  pred- 
ecessors. He  seems  to  have  especially  in 
mind  the  language  of  Dan.,  chap.  12.  The 
question  under  consideration  in  this  closing 


286 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Beginnings  of  Tribulation 


287 


chapter  of  Daniel  is  when  the  wicked  will  be 
halted  in  their  reckless  persecution  of  the  saints. 
While  perplexed  by  uncertainty  Daniel  sees  an 
angelic  being  hold  both  hands  up  to  heaven 
and  swear  "by  him  that  liveth  forever  that  it 
shall  be  for  a  time,  times,  and  a  half,  and  when 
they  have  made  an  end  of  breaking  in  pieces 
the  power  of  the  holy  people  all  these  things 
shall  be  finished"  (Dan.  12:7).  John  believes 
that  he  is  about  to  be  shown  the  fulfilment  of 
this  mysterious  language  of  prophecy,  and  that 
the  sounding  of  the  seventh  trumpet  will  dis- 
close the  beginning  of  the  end  when  celestial 
powers  will  assume  an  active  part  in  the  final 
battle  to  issue  in  the  complete  overthrow  of 
Satan  and  all  his  agents. 

Xn.      REINFORCEMENT   OF  JOHN'S   PROPHETIC 

POWERS    (10:8-11) 

10:8  The  voice  which  I  heard  from  heaven  speaking 
with  me  again  said:  Go,  take  the  book-roll  lying 
open  in  the  hand  of  the  angel  who  stands  upon 
9  the  sea  and  the  earth.  Then  I  went  to  the  angel 
and  said  to  him,  Give  me  the  little  book-rolL  He 
replied,  Take  it  and  davur  it;  it  will  be  bitter 
in  your  stomach  but  sweet  like  honey  in  your 
10  mouth.     Taking  the  little  book-roll  from  the  hand 


of  the  angel  I  devoured  it,  and  it  was  sweet  like 
honey  in  my  mouth,  but  when  I  ate  it  my  stomach 
II  was  made  bitter.  Then  someone  said  to  me.  Once 
more  you  must  prophesy  concerning  peoples  and 
nations  and  tongues  and  many  kings. 

Another  reassuring  feature  of  John's  digres- 
sion at  this  point  is  the  added  note  of  certainty 
furnished  by  the  introduction  of  the  little  book. 
This  new  augmentation  of  the  seer's  prophetic 
powers  seems  especially  designed  to  insure  the 
accuracy  of  predictions  yet  to  be  revealed.  Un- 
doubtedly Ezekiel  (2:8 — 3:3)  was  the  most 
immediate  source  of  the  notion  that  the  eating 
of  a  divine  book  filled  a  seer  with  inerrant 
prophetic  wisdom.  The  roll  devoured  by 
Ezekiel  is  said  to  have  contained  a  record 
of  lamentations,  mourning,  and  woe.  Like 
Ezekiel,  John  found  it  agreeable  to  be  the 
recipient  of  a  special  revelation,  for  in  the  case 
of  each  of  them  the  book  was  sweet  to  the  taste. 
But  the  bitterness  of  its  contents  is  a  feature 
added  by  John,  or  rather  is  his  way  of  indi- 
cating that  this  book  contains  predictions  of 
sore  distress  corresponding  to  the  lamentations, 
mourning,  and  woe  written  in  the  roll  eaten 
by  Ezekiel.  In  this  special  manner  John's 
prophetic   powers    are    reinforced    before    he 


288 


The  Revelation  of  John 


undertakes  a  description  of  the  third  woe, 
which  is  to  depict  the  terrors  of  the  final  con- 
flict between  Satan  and  the  powers  of  heaven. 
But  the  last  scene  in  the  second  woe,  the  fate 
of  the  earthly  Jerusalem,  has  yet  to  be  recorded 
before  the  third  woe  is  introduced. 

XIII.      FATE   OF  THE  EARTHLY  JERUSALEM 
'  (11:1-14) 

1 1 : 1  /  was  given  a  measuring  reed  resembling  a  staff 
and  someone  said  to  me,  Arise  and  measure  the 
temple  of  God  and  the  altar  and  the  place  in  which 

2  the  worshipers  assemble;  but  exclude  the  outer 
court  of  the  temple  area,  and  do  not  measure  it,  for 
it  has  been  surrendered  to  the  Gentiles  and  for 
forty-two  months  they  will  trample  upon  the  holy 

city, 

3  /  will  also  permit  my  two  witnesses  clad  in 
garments  of  mourning,  to  prophesy  twelve  hundred 

4  and  sixty  days.  These  are  the  two  olive  trees  and 
the  two  lampstands  which  stand  before  the  lord  of 

5  the  earth,  and  if  anyone  wishes  to  injure  them, 
fire  streaming  out  of  their  mouths  will  consume 
their  enemies.     If  anyone  wishes  to  injure  them 

6  he  must  surely  be  killed  in  this  way.  These  two 
witnesses  have  power  to  close  the  openings  in  the 
sky,  so  that  no  rain  will  descend  during  the  days 


Beginnings  of  Tribulation 


289 


of  their  prophecy.    They  also  Imve  power  to  turn 
the  waters  into  blood  and  to  smite  the  earth  with 

7  every  sort  of  plague  as  often  as  they  wish.  Then 
when  they  have  finished  their  testimony  the  beast 
that  comes  up  from  the  abyss  will  fight  with  them, 

8  overcome  them,  and  slay  them.  And  their  dead 
bodies  will  lie  in  the  principal  street  of  the  great 
city,  which  in  figurative  language  is  called  Sodom 
and  Egypt,  where  also  their  Lord  was  crucified. 

9  For  three  and  a  half  days  men  of  every  race  and 
tribe  and  tongue  and  nation  gaze  on  their  dead 

10  bodies  and  refuse  them  burial.  And  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  earth  rejoice  over  them  and  celebrate 
by  sending  gifts  to  one  another,  because  these  two 
prophets  have  tormented  the  inhabitants  of  the 
earth. 

11  After  three  and  a  half  days  a  reviving  spirit 
from  God  having  entered  into  them,  they  stood 
upon  their  feet,  while  great  fear  seized  those  who 

12  saw  them.  And  a  loud  voice  from  heaven  was 
heard  calling  to  them.  Come  up  here.  Then  as 
their  enemies  looked  on,  they  ascended  to  heaven  in 

13  a  cloud.  At  that  very  moment  a  great  earthquake 
occurred  causing  destruction  to  the  tenth  part  of 
the  city  and  seven  thousand  persons  perished  in 
the  earthquake,  but  those  who  survived  were  filled 
with  fear  and  gave  glory  to  the  God  of  heaven. 


290 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Beginnings  of  Tribulation 


291 


14  The  second  woe  is  completed;  behold  the  third 
woe  will  soon  begin. 

The  Temple  and  its  surroundings,  which 
John  in  his  vision  is  instructed  to  measure,  are 
evidently  the  structures  which  stood  upon  the 
temple  hill  in  Jerusalem.  This  section  of  the 
city  embraced  a  large  rectangular  space  sur- 
rounded by  a  high  wall.  Near  the  center  of 
this  area  stood  the  Temple  proper,  and  before 
it  on  the  east  was  situated  the  great  altar  of 
burnt  offering.  These  were  surrounded  by 
various  chambers  and  also  by  certain  areas  or 
courts  where  different  classes  of  Jewish  wor- 
shipers assembled.  Beyond  these  especially 
consecrated  precincts  was  a  large  outer  court 
to  which  Gentiles  as  well  as  Jews  had  free 
access.  Such  is  the  arrangement  presupposed 
in  John's  description. 

Does  the  command  to  measure  the  Temple 
symbolize  its  preservation  or  its  restoration? 
John  apparently  has  in  mind  the  Temple  at 
Jerusalem,  yet  this  building  had  been  destroyed 
by  the  Romans  in  70A.D.,  some  twenty-five 
years  before  Revelation  was  written.  In  the 
meantime  it  had  lain  in  ruins,  and  therefore  the 
building  that  the  seer  was  commissioned  to 
measure  did  not  exist.    This  situation  has  led 


some  interpreters  to  infer  that  at  this  point  the 
Christian  writer  appropriated  a  fragment  from 
an  older  Jewish  apocalypse  which  had  been 
composed  before  the  fall  of  the  Temple.'  In 
that  case  the  Jewish  author  imagined  that  the 
inner  court  and  the  Temple  proper  would  be 
miraculously  protected  from  harm  while  the 
outer  court  and  the  city  of  Jerusalem  as  a 
whole  would  be  overrun  by  gentile  invaders. 
Thus  the  measuring  of  the  sanctuary  might  be 
taken  as  a  prophecy  of  its  preservation. 

But  this  notion  was  scarcely  appropriate 
to  John's  own  situation,  when  the  Temple  was 
already  in  ruins.  Even  if  he  appropriated  a 
current  tradition  originally  intended  to  empha- 
size the  inviolability  of  the  Temple,  his  circum- 
stances required  that  the  tradition  be  assigned 
a  different  interpretation  in  accordance  with 
the  facts  of  subsequent  history.  For  John  the 
incident  could  appropriately  signify  only  the  idea 
of  restoration.  The  mere  fact  of  the  Temple's 
destruction  did  not  render  absurd  the  command 
that  he  take  its  measurements.  A  seer  in  his 
vision  could  measure  the  imaginary  model  of 
a  thing  as  easily  as  the  thing  itself.    Thus 

'The  assumption  that  Revelation  itself  was  written  before 
the  fall  of  Jerusalem  is  untenable.    See  above,  pp.  42  ff. 


292 


Tlie  Revelation  of  John 


Beginnings  of  Tribulation 


293 


Ezekiel  was  carried  in  his  ecstasy  to  the  deso- 
late land  of  Judea  and  there  beheld  with  his 
prophetic  eye  a  heavenly  apparition  take  care- 
ful measurement  of  buildings  which  had  not 
yet  been  actually  constructed/  Similarly  for 
the  Christian  seer  the  visionary  replica  of  the 
demolished  Temple  at  Jerusalem  was  as  easily 
mensurable  as  its  actual  earthly  counterpart 
would  have  been.  Even  though  the  latter 
had  been  destroyed  for  a  quarter  of  a  century, 
there  is  no  inconsistency  in  the  command  given 
to  John;  and  the  measuring  of  the  Temple,  the 
altar,  and  the  inner  court  would  signify  for  him 
a  promise  of  restoration.  The  outer  court  to 
which  Gentiles  had  formerly  been  admitted  was 
to  be  left  out  of  account,  because  they  would 
no  longer  be  tolerated  in  the  new  age  when  the 
new  temple  would  be  reared. 

Probably  John  expected  this  rebuilding  of 
God's  sanctuary  to  occur  after  Christ  had 
triumphed  over  the  heathen,  and  presumably 
when  he  had  established  his  earthly  millennial 
kingdom  upon  the  site  of  the  holy  city.  If 
the  writer  attempted  to  be  consistent  in  his 
thinking  upon  this  subject,  the  new  temple 
would  have  to  belong  in  the  millennial  regime* 


Ezek.,  chap.  40. 


*Rev.  20:4-6. 


rather  than  in  the  final  state  of  bliss  to  be 
instituted  after  the  close  of  the  millennium. 
It  is  explicitly  said  that  there  is  no  place  for 
such  a  sanctuary  in  the  new  Jerusalem,  because 
God  and  the  Lamb  will  be  its  temple.'  But 
one  may  easily  go  too  far  in  demanding  logical 
consistency  of  an  apocalyptic  seer. 

John's  gaze  is  fixed  intently  upon  the  future 
rather  than  upon  any  specific  events  of  past 
history.  He  is  here  concerned  with  the  last 
scene  in  the  second  woe,  the  final  outburst  of  ' 
heathen  violence  before  God  initiates  his  pro- 
gram of  active  intervention.  With  unprece- 
dented arrogance  for  three  and  a  half  years 
the  Gentiles  will  hold  sway  over  the  holy  city. 
During  this  period  God's  concern  for  his  people 
is  manifested  merely  by  the  preaching  of  two 
special  representatives,  who  at  last  are  slain 
by  Satan  when  he  emerges  from  the  abyss  in 
the  form  of  a  beast.  Thus  the  triumph  of  the 
heathen  seems  absolutely  complete. 

Both  the  temporary  supremacy  of  the  Gen- 
tiles and  the  preaching  of  a  prophetic  reformer 
were  characteristic  phases  of  Jewish  belief 
regarding  events  to  occur  during  the  closing 
period  of  the  great  tribulation.    The  mission 

'Rev.  21:22;  but  see  3:12;  7:15. 


294 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Beginnings  of  Tribulation 


295 


of  a  reformer  is  foretold  in  MaJ.  4 :  S  f  •  •  "  Behold 
I  will  send  you  Elijah  the  prophet  before  the 
great  and  terrible  day  of  Jehovah  come.    And 
he  shall  turn  the  heart  of  the  fathers  to  the 
children,  and  the  heart  of  the  children  to  their 
fathers,  lest  I  come  and  smite  the  earth  with  a 
curse."    As  this  item  of  apocalyptic  belief  was 
worked  over  in  subsequent  Jewish  and  Christian 
tradition  it  took  on  different  forms.    Some- 
times either  Enoch  or  Moses  supplanted  or 
supplemented  Elijah  as  a  reincarnated  prophet 
of  reform.    While  John  gives  no  names  to  his 
two  witnesses  it  is  perfectly  apparent  that  they 
are   Elijah,   who   formerly   had   stopped   the 
rains  and  called  down  fire  from  heaven,'  and 
Moses,  who  had  caused  the  waters  of  Egypt 
to  be  turned  into  blood  and  had  brought  many 
other   plagues    upon    the    oppressors   of    the 
Hebrews.'    The  idea  that  these  two  persons 
existed  in  heaven  as  two  olive  trees  and  two 
lampstands  is  due  to  imagery  appropriated  from 

Zech.  4:1-4- 

The  function  of  Elijah  and  Moses  in  their 
new  incarnation  will  be  to  prophesy  for  three 
and  a  half  years.  Apparently  their  preaching 
will  be  directed  especially  against  the  heathen, 


»I  Kings  17:1;  n  Kings  1:10. 


»Exod.  7:i4fif. 


for  whom  they  will  be  so  conspicuous  a  source 
of  torment  that  the  death  of  these  two  witnesses 
will  be  hailed  with  great  delight.  But  the 
heathen's  joy  will  quickly  turn  to  astonishment 
when  the  bodies  of  the  prophets  are  marvel- 
ously  resuscitated  and  transported  to  heaven. 
A  sympathetic  convulsion  of  nature,  causing 
a  destructive  earthquake,  is  expected  to  call 
forth  a  special  ascription  of  glory  to  God. 
Possibly  John  is  here  thinking  more  particularly 
of  Jews  in  Jerusalem,  who  heretofore  had 
rejected  Christianity.  That  Jerusalem  is  the 
place  where  these  events  are  to  transpire  is 
made  evident  by  the  reference  to  Jesus'  cruci- 
fixion. And  the  city  is  allegorically  called 
Sodom  and  Egypt  because  unconverted  Jews 
by  their  rejection  of  Christ  have  brought  upon 
themselves  a  ruin  like  that  which  overtook 
Sodom,  and  are  as  unfortunate  as  were  their 
ancestors  in  bondage  to  the  Egyptians. 

The  forty-two  months  of  gentile  supremacy, 
equal  in  ancient  reckoning  to  the  twelve  hun- 
dred and  sixty  days  of  the  two  witnesses' 
activity,  is  identical  with  the  mysterious  period 
of  waiting  alluded  to  in  10:7.  The  idea 
is  derived  from  Daniel's  "time  (one  year), 
times  (two  years),  and  a  half  (six  months)." 


296 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Therefore  this  scene  brings  to  a  close  John's 
visions  of  that  period  of  future  distress  during 
which  time  God  will  seem  to  leave  the  world  to 
suffer  its  agonies  unrelieved.  As  the  third  woe 
is  introduced  still  more  terrible  sufferings  are 
to  overtake  the  righteous,  but  during  this  final 
period  of  their  distress  the  celestial  powers  will 
no  longer  withhold  relief,  but  will  participate 
actively  in  the  final  conflict.  Thus  after  a 
long  digression  in  his  visions  (10:1  ff.)  John  is 
ready  to  learn  that  the  second  woe  is  past,  and 
that  a  picture  of  the  third  woe  is  about  to  be 
thrown  upon  the  screen. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  LAST  WOE  (REV.  11:15—18:24) 

Up  to  this  point  John  has  described  various 
forms  of  distress  to  occur  during  the  preliminary 
stages  of  the  great  tribulation.  Christians  have 
been  encouraged  to  endure  these  aflBictions  with 
equanimity,  confident  that  God  Almighty  and 
his  glorious  Messiah  are  in  a  position  of  suprem- 
acy in  heaven.  Several  scenes  in  the  seer's 
visions  were  designed  to  confirm  belief  in  the 
ultimate  safety  of  the  saints  and  the  final  over- 
throw of  sinners.  Yet  the  increase  of  evils  upon 
earth  has  been  permitted  to  progress  without 
any  very  serious  attempt  at  corrective  inter- 
vention on  the  part  of  the  celestial  powers. 
John  seems  to  have  assumed  that  God  would 
remain  passive  until  the  agonies  of  the  last 
times  had  reached  a  specific  climax.  The  cul- 
minating event  in  the  multiplication  of  disasters 
was  to  be  a  final  desecration  of  the  Holy  City 
when  the  rampant  forces  of  wickedness  would 
kill  the  two  heavenly  witnesses  even  as  Jesus 
had  been  slain.  This  future  catastrophe  was 
the  last  scene  in  the  description  of  the  so-called 

297 


^4 


298 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Last  Woe 


299 


second  woe  revealed  to  John  after  the  blowing 
of  the  sixth  trumpet. 

•  The  trumpet-blast  of  the  seventh  angel 
serves  to  reveal  to  the  seer  that  the  divine 
purposes  have  reached  a  new  stage.  At  this 
point  in  the  course  of  future  events  God  will 
no  longer  remain  passive  toward  the  woes  which 
the  times  of  tribulation  inflict  upon  the  saints, 
but  will  actively  begin  the  process  of  asserting 
his  own  sovereignty  in  the  world.  True,  this 
period  of  final  conflict  is  to  witness  sufferings 
greater  than  any  yet  experienced  by  mortals. 
It  is  to  be  the  time  of  the  third  and  greatest  of 
woes,  yet  this  acceleration  of  evils  has  its  com- 
pensations. It  is  a  direct  result  of  Satan's 
supreme  effort  to  make  the  most  of  the  remain- 
ing time  at  his  disposal,  and  thus  these  distresses 
are  an  indirect  evidence  that  at  last  God  has 
actively  intervened.  John  has  now  reached  the 
supreme  moment  in  his  apocalyptic  visions, 
where  the  outstanding  events  in  the  final  period 
of  distress  pass  before  his  eye. 

The  first  disclosure  of  this  new  section  of 
Revelation  is  an  emphatic  declaration  that  God 
now  actively  assumes  his  right  of  sovereignty 
over  the  world  (11:15-19).  Then  follows 
another  vision  depicting  an  attack  of  Satan 


.  upon  the  Messiah  and  the  preservation  of  the 
latter  in  heaven  where  he  awaits  the  time  to 
perform  his  part  in  the  righting  of  the  world's 
ills  (12:1-6).     God's  aggressive  action  is  first 
exhibited  in  the  ejection  of  Satan  from  the 
heavens  (i  2 : 7-1 7) .    Formerly  Satan's  activities 
had  extended  even  up  to  the  celestial  regions, 
but  when  he  is  no  longer  privileged  to  be  the 
accuser  of  mankind  in  heaven  he  will  institute 
new  tortures  for  those  who  live  upon  earth, 
directing  his  anger  especially  against  the  Chris- 
tians.   He  will  employ  as  his  agents  a  vicious 
Roman  emperor,  the  "beast,"  who  will  demand 
universal  worship  of  himself   (12:18—13:10). 
An  energetic  priest,  who  is  also  a  unique  repre- 
sentative ot  Satan,  will  assist  the  emperor  m 
imposing  his  blasphemous  demands  upon  all 
the  inhabitants  of  the  earth  (13:11-18).    This 
display  of  agonies  is  temporarily  relieved  by 
a  vision  of  a  group   of  victorious  saints  in 
company   with    the   Messiah    standing   upon 
Mount   Zion    (14:1-5).      A   series    of   angels 
pronounce  doom  upon  the  beast's  worshipers 
(14:6-13)  and  declare  that  the  wrath  of  divine 
judgment  is  about  to  overtake  sinners  (14:14- 
20).    A  picture  is  shown  of  the  preparations 
being  made  in  heaven  for  the  early  exhibition 


300  The  Revelation  oj  John 

of  God's  wrath  (15:1—16:1).  The  preUmi- 
nary  expression  of  his  anger  takes  the  form 
of  distressing  plagues  which  bring  disaster  to 
the  worshipers  of  the  emperor  (16:2-9)  and  to 
the  imperial  regime  (16: 10-21).  In  order  that 
there  may  be  no  mistake  regarding  the  real 
object  of  divine  wrath,  John  is  granted  a 
special  vision  unmistakably  identifymg  Rome 
as  the  Satanic  agency  whose  overthrow  has 
been  decreed  (chap.  17).  A  specific  pronounce- 
ment of  doom  upon  Rome  (18: 1-8)  is  followed 
by  a  description  of  loud  lamentation  on  the 
part  of  heathen  kings  and  traders  as  they  wit- 
ness her  downfall  (18:9-20).  By  a  symbolic 
act  a  powerful  angel  pronounces  utter  ruin  upon  ^ 
the  great  heathen  city  (18:21-24). 

I.   DECLARATION  OF  GOD'S  SOVEREIGNTY 

(11:15-19) 

11:15  When  the  seventh  angel  blew  his  trumpet  loud 
voices  in  heaven  exclaimed:  The  rulership  of  the 
world  has  been  assumed  by  our  Lord  and  his 
Messiah  and  he  mill  reign  throughout  eternity. 

16  Also  the  twenty-four  dignitaries  who  were  en- 
throned in  the  presence  of  God  prostrated  them- 

17  selves  and  worshiped  God  exclaiming:  We  render 
thee  thanks,  Lord  God  Almighty,  the  one  who  is 


The,Last  Woe 


301 


and  who  was,  because  thou  hast  taken  in  hand 
thy  mighty  power  and  hast  assumed  thy  rule, 

18  The  Gentiles  have  vented  their  rage  upon  the 
righteous,  but  now  the  time  to  show  thy  wrath  has 
come,  when  the  dead  are  to  be  raised  and  rewards 
bestowed  upon  thy  servants  the  prophets,  and  the 
saints  of  both  low  and  high  degree  who  revere  thy 
name,  while  destruction  will  overtake  those  who 
have  despoiled  the  earth. 

19  Then  God^s  temple  in  heaven  was  opened,  dis- 
closing to  view  the  ark  of  his  covenant  within  his 
temple.  Then  there  followed  flashing  lightnings, 
terrifying  sounds,  pealing  thunders,  an  earth- 
quake, and  a  heavy  hailstorm. 

This  vision  carries  the  imagination  of  the 
apocalyptic  seer  high  above  the  agonies  of  the 
great  tribulation  and  so  vividly  discloses  to  him 
the  coming  triumph  of  God  that  it  is  described 
as  a  present  reality.  Since  the  time  has  now 
come  for  God  to  act,  he  bestirs  himself  to 
assume  his  rightful  rulership  of  the  world.  Thus 
far  the  sinful  Gentiles  have  seemed  immune 
from  the  divine  anger,  but  now  the  tables  are 
to  be  turned  and  God  is  to  wreak  vengeance 
upon  the  persecutors  of  the  saints.  The  mention 
of  those  who  despoil  the  earth  is  clearly  an 
allusion  to  imperial  Rome's  anticipated  policy 


302 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Last  Woe 


303 


12 


of  forcing  worship  of  the  ruler  upon  all  his 
subjects.    This  crime  is  to  bring  down  upon 
Rome  the  destructive  wrath  of  the  Almighty. 
A  description  of  this  divine  action  is  the  theme 
of  this  portion  of  John's  book.    The  reliability 
of  the  prophecy  is  enhanced  by  a  characteristic 
reference  to  the  heavenly  temple  disclosing  that 
most  sacred  object,  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  as 
a    symbol    that    God    would    remember    the 
promises  of  redemption  given  to  his  people. 
The  whole  scene  takes  on  a  more  terrifying 
aspect  with  the  references  to  earthquake  and 
storm.    The  wrath  of  God  is  about  to  break 
upon  earth  with  the  violence  of  a  frightful 
electric  storm  and  the  devastation  of  a  fearful 
seismic  disturbance. 

n.      SATAN'S  ATTACK  UPON  THE  MESSIAH 

(12:1-6) 

1  A  marvelous  omen  appeared  in  the  sky  in  the 
form  of  a  woman  clothed  with  the  sun,  having  the 
moon  under  her  feet,  and  a  crown  of  twelve  stars 

2  on  her  head.  She  was  pregnant  and  cried  aloud 
with  pain  as  she  labored  to  give  birth  to  her  child. 

3  Then  another  omen  suddenly  appeared  in  the 
sky  in  the  form  of  a  great  fiery-red  dragon  with 
seven  heads  and  ten  horns  and  seven  diadems  on  his 


4  heads.  His  tail  swept  up  the  third  part  of  the  stars 
of  heaven  and  hurled  them  upon  the  earth.  And 
the  dragon  took  his  stand  hi  front  of  the  woman  who 
was  about  to  be  delivered,  in  order  that  when  she 
gave  birth  to  her  child  he  might  devour  it. 

5  Then  she  brought  forth  a  son,  a  male  child^, 
who  is  about  to  rule  all  the  Gentiles  with  a  rod  of 
iron,  and  her  child  was  transported  to  God  to  his 

6  throne.  The  woman  also  fled  into  the  desert  vbhere 
she  found  a  place  prepared  for  her  by  God,  in 
order  that  she  might  be  kept  alive  there  for  twelve 
hundred  and  sixty  days. 

In  the  final  conflict  about  to  be  seen  by  John 
in  his  visions,  Satan  himself  unwittingly  takes 
the  initiative  by  boldly  designing  an  attack 
upon  the  Messiah.  The  participants  in  this 
scene  are  pictured  as  two  astral  beings,  one  a 
marvelous  woman  and  the  other  a  dreadful 
dragon.  Both  figures  were  probably  suggested 
to  John  by  imagery  current  in  his  immediate 
environment.  Among  different  ancient  peoples 
extravagant  mythological  fancy  had  created 
various  pictures  representing  a  conflict  in  the 
heavens  between  natural  forces  of  light  or  life 
and  similar  powers  of  darkness  or  death.  By 
John's  day  this  primitive  fancy  had  crystal- 
lized into  various  myths  concretely  depicting 


304  The  Revelation  of  John 

a  struggle  between  opposing  supernatural 
powers.  Among  Babylonians,  Egyptians,  and 
Greeks  this  type  of  imagery  had  wide  cur- 
rency, and  each  of  these  sources  has  been  sug- 
gested as  the  origin  of  John's  figures.  The 
closest  parallel  is  furnished  by  the  Greek  story 
of  Leto  persecuted  by  the  dragon  Python  before 
she  gave  birth  to  Apollo.  This  legend  would  be 
especially  familiar  to  the  peoples  of  western 
Asia  Minor,  and  it  may  have  furnished  the 
model  for  John's  vision. 

Not  the  historical  genesis  of  the  imagery, 
however,  but  its  prophetic  significance  was  of 
prime  importance  for  John.  To  the  details  of 
the  picture  he  probably  attached  no  special 
value,  his  main  interest  being  to  depict  the  fact 
of  the  conflict.  He  was  describing  anticipated 
future  events,  and  in  this  incident  he  saw  one 
of  those  strange  phenomena  of  the  latter  days 
representing  Satan's  hostility  toward  the  Mes- 
siah. Of  course  the  woman  was  not  supposed 
to  be  the  earthly  mother  of  Jesus.  Long  before 
this  date  he  had  been  born,  crucified,  and 
exalted  to  a  position  of  unique  authority  in 
heaven.  But  at  this  future  moment  he  would 
temporarily  assume  the  form  of  an  infant  born 
of  a  strange  astral  mother  in  order  that  Satan's 


The  Last  Woe 


305 


animosity  toward  him  might  find  opportunity 
for  concrete  expression.  Such  was  John's  ex- 
pectation as  depicted  in  this  vision. 

The  fiery-red  dragon  is  clearly  a  personifica- 
tion of  Satan.  As  seen  by  John,  he  is  distinctly 
an  astral  monster,  with  a  comet-like  tail  large 
enough  to  include  in  its  sweep  one-third  of  the 
stars.  He  is  awaiting  the  birth  of  the  woman's 
son,  whom  the  seer  specifically  calls  a  "male 
child"  in  order  to  suggest  to  his  readers  the 
messianic  terminology  of  Isa.  66:7.  Reference 
to  his  authority  over  the  Gentiles  is  another 
device  for  indicating  his  messianic  prerogatives. 
But  Satan's  designs  upon  the  child  are  foiled. 
The  Messiah  is  snatched  away  to  a  place  of 
safety  in  heaven,  where  his  previous  abode  had 
been ;  and  God  intervenes  to  provide  the  woman 
a  shelter  in  the  desert.  The  rage  of  the  dragon 
is  to  continue  twelve  hundred  and  sixty  days, 
that  is,  three  and  a  half  years,  when  his  complete 
overthrow  will  be  accompUshed.  This  number 
evidently  is  derived  from  the  same  source  as 
the  period  of  time  mentioned  in  1 1 : 2  f .  Appar- 
ently John  divided  the  last  tribulation  into 
two  parts,  each  to  continue  three  and  one-half 
years.  The  preliminary  period  would  close 
with  the  disaster  to  Jerusalem  described  in 


3o6 


The  Revelation  of  John 


11:13,  and  the  second  period  with  the  fall  of 
Rome  and  the  overthrow  of  Satan  (chap.  19). 
In  the  present  connection  reference  is  made  to 
the  duration  of  the  final  conflict,  the  second 
period  of  three  and  a  half  years,  to  end  with 
the  destruction  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

in.      EJECTION    OF    SATAN    FROM    THE    HEAVENS 

(12:7-17) 

12:7  Then  a  great  battle  took  place  in  the  sky  as 
Michael  and  his  angels  fought  with  the  dragon. 
The  dragon  and  his  angels  also  fought,  hut  they 

8  did  not  prevail,  nor  were  they  permitted  any 

9  longer  to  retain  their  place  in  the  sky.  But  the 
dragon,  the  ancient  serpent,  who  is  called  the  devil 
and  Satan,  who  leads  astray  all  the  inhabitants 
of  the  earth,  was  hurled  down  to  the  earth,  and  his 

10  angels  were  hurled  down  with  him.  Thereupon  I 
heard  a  loud  voice  in  heaven  exclaiming:  Now 
the  salvation  and  the  power  and  the  rulership  of 
our  God  and  the  authority  of  his  Messiah  have 
come  to  pass;  for  the  accuser  of  our  brethren,  he 
who  brought  accusations  against  them  before  our 

11  God  day  and  night,  has  been  hurled  down,  and 
they  too  have  triumphed  over  him  through  the 
efficacy  of  the  Lamb's  blood  and  their  loyalty 
to  the  word  of  the  testimony,  for  they  did  not 


The  Last  Woe 


307 


12  cling  to  life  even  in  the  face  of  death.  Therefore 
let  the  heavens  and  those  who  dwell  therein  rejoice, 
but  woe  to  the  earth  and  the  sea  because  the  devil 
has  descended  upon  you  in  a  mighty  rage  knowing 
that  he  has  only  a  short  time  left. 

13  When  the  dragon  perceived  thfit  he  had  been 
hurled  down  to  earth,  he  pursued  the  woman  who 

14  brought  forth  the  male  child,  but  she  was  furnished 
with  the  two  wings  of  the  great  eagle  in  order  that 
she  might  fly  to  her  place  in  the  desert  where  for 
a  time,  times,  and  a  half  time,  she  is  to  be  kept 

15  alive  safe  from  the  sight  of  the  serpent.  The 
serpent  also  hurled  out  of  his  mouth  after  the 
woman  a  stream  of  water  resembling  a  river  in  an 

16  efort  to  engulf  her  in  the  stream.  But  the  earth 
aided  the  woman  by  opening  its  mouth  and  swal- 
lowing up  the  river  which  the  dragon  hurled  out 

IT  of  his  mouth.  Thus  in  a  rage  at  the  woman  the 
dragon  turned  away  to  wage  war  with  the  rest  of 
her  kin  who  keep  the  commandments  of  God  and 
adhere  to  the  testimony  of  Jesus. 

The  first  effect  of  God's  new  assumption  of 
sovereignty  will  be  the  ejection  of  Satan  from 
the  celestial  regions,  where  he  had  previously 
been  conducting  a  campaign  against  mankind. 
His  habit  of  slandering  mortals  before  God  is 
mentioned  in  various  earlier  Jewish  sources, 


3o8 


The  Revelation  oj  John 


from    which    John    appropriated    the    idea.' 
Therefore  the  first  item  in  the  relief  of  the 
saints'  distresses  is  to  be  the  elimination  of 
their    heavenly    adversary.      The    archangel 
Michael,  who  is  the  traditional  angelic  guardian 
of  Israel,'  will  lead  in  the  conflict  to  overthrow 
Satan.    This  initial  catastrophe  for  Satan  will 
also  be  a  triumph  for  Christians.    It  will  not 
only    remove    all   hostility    toward    them    in 
heaven,  but  once  Satan's  kingdom  has  begun 
to  crumble  the  prospect  of  its  complete  down- 
fall grows  more  hopeful.     Two  causes  combined 
in  securing  this  initial  victory  for  the  saints. 
The  blood  shed  by  Jesus  and  the  Christians' 
unswerving  loyalty  to  the  mstruction  which 
they    had    received    from    Christ    ultimately 
aroused  the  heavenly  powers  to  action. 

Satan's  removal  from  the  heavens  will,  how- 
ever, mean  only  a  partial  victory  for  Christians. 
In  fact,  temporarily  their  status  upon  earth  will 
become  even  more  distressing  as  a  result  of  the 
dragon's  defeat  by  Michael.  In  consequence 
of  exclusion  from  the  celestial  regions  the  fierce- 
ness of  the  demons'  activities  upon  earth  will 
be  greatly  augmented.    This  phase  of  John's 

'Job  1:6-12;  2:1-6;  Zech.  3:1  f.;  I  En.  40:7. 
«Dan.  10:13,  21;  12:1;  Jude,  vs.  9. 


V 


The  Last  Woe 


309 


thinking  is  in  line  with  the  speculations  of  his 
Jewish  predecessors,  who  commonly  depicted 
an  increase  of  evil  in  the  last  times.     The  pur- 
suit of  the  woman  and  the  attempt  to  over- 
come her  with  a  flood  of  water  are  picturesque 
detaUs  probably  derived  from  gentUe  specula- 
tion, with  which  John  here  supplements  his 
apocalyptic  heritage.    The  great  eagle  whose 
wmgs  are  given  to  the  woman  to  aid  her  in 
flight  is  also  a  characteristic  creation  of  gentUe 
fancy.     When  the  dragon  is  thwarted  in  his 
designs  upon  the  woman  he  wUl  proceed  to 
vent  his  spite  upon  the  Christians  who  are  the 
woman's  km  or  "  seed,"  simply  in  the   sense 
that   they,  like  herself,  and  the  male  child 
whom    she    bore,    are    common    objects    of 
Satan's   hatred.    It   is  futile   to  seek   for  a 
specific  historical  counterpart  of  this  astral 
maiden.    John's  vision  is  concerned  with  antici- 
pated future  happenings  in  which  the  presence 
of  this  strange  woman  serves  simply  to  heighten 
the  impressiveness  of  the  picture.    The  one 
point  which  the  seer  desires  to  stress  is  the  vio- 
lence of  Satan's  rage  which  is  ultimately  to  be 
directed  against  those  Christians  who  remain 
upon  earth.    Again,  as  previously  in  12:6  and 
subsequently  in   13:5,  this  closing  period  of 


3IO  The  Revelation  of  John 

suffering  is  expected  to  endure  three  and  a 
half  years. 

IV.      THE  IMPERIAL  BEAST  (l2  *.  l8 — 13 :  lo) 

12 :  18        Then  I  took  my  stand  upon  the  sandy  shore  of 

13 : 1  the  sea,  and  I  saw  coming  up  out  of  the  sea  a  beast 

with  ten  horns  and  seven  heads.    There  were  ten 

diadems  upon  his  horns  and  blasphemous  words 

were  inscribed  upon  his  heads.    The  beast  which 

2  I  saw  resembled  a  leopard,  but  his  feet  were  like 
those  of  a  bear  and  his  mouth  like  that  of  a  lion. 
And  the  dragon  assigned  him  his  own  power  and 
his  own  throne  and  great  authority. 

3  One  of  his  heads  bore  the  mark  (rf  a  violent 
death,  but  the  place  where  he  had  received  this 

4  fatal  bUrw  was  healed.  The  whole  earth  gazed 
wonderingly  after  the  beast,  and  men  worshiped 
the  dragon  because  he  gave  authority  to  the  beast. 
They  also  worshiped  the  beast,  and  exclaimed, 

5  Who  is  there  like  the  beast,  and  who  is  able  to 
fight  with  him?  He  was  provided  with  a  voice 
to  utter  boastings  and  blasphemies,  and  was 
permitted  to  continue  his  activities  for  forty- 

6  two  months.  He  opened  his  mouth  to  speak 
blasphemies  against  God,  blaspheming  his  nanie 
and  his  dwelling-place  and  those  who  dwell  in 
heaven. 


The  Last  Woe 


3" 


7  He  was  also  permitted  to  wage  war  with  the 
saints  and  to  triumph  over  them,  and  was  given 
authority  over  every  tribe  and  people  and  tongue 

8  and  nation.  And  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth 
will  worship  him,  whose  name  from  the  beginning 
of  the  world  has  not  been  found  written  in  the 
slain  LamVs  book  of  life. 

9  If  anyone  has  an  ear  let  him  hear  this:  If 
anyone  is  destined  for  captivity,  into  captivity  he 

10  will  go;  if  anyone  kills  with  a  sword,  with  a 
sword  must  he  be  killed.  On  this  certainty  rest 
the  patient  endurance  and  fidelity  of  the  saints. 

In  this  vision  John  learns  of  the  unique  plan 
which  the  Satanic  dragon  will  devise  for 
wreaking  his  vengeance  upon  Christians.  He 
will  authorize  a  fearful  beast  to  exercise  his 
power  upon  earth.  As  described  by  John,  this 
beast  is  clearly  a  future  ruler  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  who  will  blasphemously  set  himself  up 
as  a  deity  demanding  worship  of  all  his  subjects. 
The  recent  experiences  of  John  and  his  fellow- 
Christians  in  resisting  emperor-worship  have 
led  him  to  believe  that  the  final  outburst  of 
Satanic  wickedness  in  the  world  will  be  a  more 
aggravated  form  of  this  same  type  of  affliction. 
The  beast  who  is  to  rule  upon  earth  in  the  last 
times  is  so  described  that  his  identity  could 


312 


The  Revelation  of  John 


hardly  be  mistaken  by  any  Christian  of  John's 
day.  Certain  details  of  the  picture  of  the  beast 
are  derived  from  Dan.  7:2  fif.,  but  enough 
original  features  are  introduced  to  make  it  per- 
fectly evident  that  the  seer  has  pre-eminently 
in  mind  the  recent  efforts  to  force  the  worship 
of  Domitian  upon  Christians,  and  that  in  future 
they  may  expect  the  imperial  throne  to  be 
occupied  by  another  ruler  who,  in  his  hostil- 
ity toward  the  followers  of  Christ,  will  be  a 
veritable  incarnation  of  Satan. 

This  grotesque  creature  will  have  a  scar  on 
one  of  his  heads  that  serves  the  purposes  of 
further  identification.    John  perceives  that  the 
beast  in  a  previous  incarnation  had  met  a 
violent  death  and  still  bears  the  evidences  of 
the  fatal  sword  thrust  by  which  he  had  fallen. 
In  a  subsequent  connection  we  also  learn  that 
this  last  imperial  monstrosity  is  to  be   the 
reincarnation  of  a  previous  emperor  (17:8  ff.). 
These  allusions  point  to  a  beUef  in  the  return  of 
Nero,  whom  the  Christians  remembered  as  their 
first  imperial  persecutor.    It  was  a  historical 
fact  that  Nero  had  met  his  death  by  plunging  a 
dagger  into  his  own  throat,  and  legends  regard- 
ing his  reappearance  were  rife  in  John's  day. 
Nero  had  impressed  even  the  Roman  populace 


The  Last  Woe 


313 


as  an  uncanny  person,  of  whose  real  death  there 
was  some  doubt.  As  early  as  the  year  69  a.d. 
it  was  commonly  rumored  that  he  was  still  alive 
and  in  hiding  in  the  East,  whence  he  would  re- 
turn to  resume  control  of  the  Empire.  Relying 
upon  this  report,  pretenders  arose  from  time  to 
time,  claiming  to  impersonate  Nero.  This 
belief  in  a  Nero  redivivus  excited  interest,  espe- 
cially in  the  provinces  of  Achaia  (Greece)  and 
Asia,  and  was  stiU  current  in  the  second  decade 
of  the  second  century.  The  idea  was  also  taken 
up  by  the  Jewish  author  of  the  Sibylline  Oracles. 
It  is  not  at  all  surprising  that  John  should 
appropriate  the  legend  so  widely  current,'  espe- 
cially in  view  of  Nero's  reputation  as  an  enemy 
of  Christianity. 

The  characteristic  activity  of  the  beast  will 
be  a  demand  for  worship  of  himself.  The  blas- 
phemous words  inscribed  upon  his  heads  are 
deific  titles  such  as  were  habitually  conferred 
upon  gentile  rulers  by  their  admiring  subjects. 
Among  these  customary  epithets  were  the  terms 
"God,"   "Son  of  God,"  and  "Lord."^     The 

'Suetonius  Nero  57;  Tacitus  Hist.  ii.  8;  Dio  Chrysostom 
Oral.  xxi.  g  f.;  Sib.  Or.  iv.  119  f.,  137  fif.;  v.  28  S.,  137  f.,  215  fif., 
362  fif.;  Asc.  Isa,  4:2f. 

*  S.  J.  Case,  Evolution  of  Early  Ckristianity  (Chicago,  1914), 
pp.  209  fif. 


314 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Satanic  emperor  of  the  last  days  will  not  only 
receive  these  titles  but  will  institute  an  aggres- 
sive propaganda  boasting  of  his  own  divine 
supremacy.  Thus  he  will  arrogate  to  himself 
those  prerogatives  which  Christians  regard  as 
belonging  exclusively  to  the  God  of  heaven  and 
his  celestial  associates.  The  result  will  be 
severe  persecution  for  the  followers  of  Christ, 
while  all  other  persons  throughout  the  Empire 
will  adopt  Caesar-worship.  This  unhappy  state 
of  affairs  will  continue  for  three  and  a  half  years 
(forty-two  months),  which  is  identical  with  the 
period  allotted  to  Satan  for  his  final  depreda- 
tions upon  earth  (13:5;  12:6,  14). 

The  outlook  for  Christians  during  these 
closing  days  of  distress  would  be  dark  indeed 
were  it  not  for  an  oracular  word  of  wisdom 
which  John  is  able  to  communicate  to  everyone 
who  has  the  ear  of  understanding,  a  faculty 
which  presumably  is  possessed  by  all  faithful 
Christians.  For  a  time  the  beast  may  arro- 
gantly set  himself  up  as  a  deity,  but  the  saints 
will  note  that  his  name  is  lacking  in  the  Lamb's 
book  of  life.  Since  calamity  awaits  everyone 
whose  name  is  missing  from  this  celestial  regis- 
ter, the  beast  is  foredoomed  to  disaster.  He  is 
destined  for  sure  captivity,  when  he  will  be 


The  Last  Woe 


31S 


chained  and  confined  within  the  burning  pit  of 
the  abyss  (19:19  f  .)>  while  his  agents  who  arrest 
and  kill  Christians  are  similarly  destined  to  be 
slain  by  the  sword  projecting  from  the  mouth 
of  the  victorious  Messiah  when  he  comes  in 
triumph  to  set  up  his  kingdom  (19:21).  Confi- 
dent in  this  outcome  of  events,  Christians  will 
patiently  endure  the  strain  of  final  persecution 
and  remain  faithful  to  Christ  by  refusing  to 
worship  the  Satanic  monster  who  will  tempo- 
rarily hold  sway  over  the  Roman  world.' 

» The  foregoing  explanation  of  Rev.  13:8-10  differs  radically 
from  the  current  interpretation  of  this  passage.  Commentators 
usually  assume  that  (i)  in  vs.  8  it  is  not  the  emperor  but  his 
worshipers  whose  name  is  missing  from  the  book  of  life;  that 
(2)  the  captivity  mentioned  in  vs.  10  refers  to  the  treatment 
being  meted  out  to  Christians  rather  than  to  the  fate  awaiting 
the  emperor;  and  that  (3)  the  remark  about  the  sword  is  not  a 
prediction  of  the  persecutor's  fate,  but  is  a  warning  against  a 
disposition  on  the  part  of  Christians  to  employ  force  in  resisting 
the  imperial  authorities. 

The  reasons  for  deviating  from  these  generally  accepted 
opinions  are,  briefly  stated,  as  follows:  (i)  The  best  attested 
form  of  the  relative  in  vs.  8  is  the  singular  ov,  of  which  the  natural 
antecedent  is  ai)T6v,  referring  to  the  beast.  To  be  sure,  solecisms 
are  common  enough  in  Revelation,  but  when  the  author  wished 
also  to  state  that  the  names  of  the  beast's  worshipers  were  not 
written  in  the  book  of  life  b :  knew  how  to  use  the  plural  of  the 
relative,  as  in  fact  he  did  in  17:8.  (2)  It  was  in  perfect  accord 
with  the  author's  thinking  to  affirm  that  the  name  of  the  beast 
as  well  as  that  of  his  worshipers  was  not  included  in  the  heavenly 
register  of  the  redeemed.  Even  as  late  as  Tertullian's  day  it  was 
still  thought  impossible  for  an  emperor  to  become  a  Christian 


316 


rfe  Revelation  of  John 


V.      THE  PRIEST  OF  THE  IMPERIAL  CULT 

(13:11-18) 

13:11        Then  I  saw  coming  up  out  of  the  earth  another 
beast,  which  had  two  horns  like  a  lamb,  but  he 

12  spoke  like  a  dragon.  He  possessed  full  authority 
to  act  on  behalf  of  the  first  beast,  making  the  earth 
and  all  its  inhabitants  worship  the  first  beast, 

13  whose  fatal  wound  had  been  healed.  He  also 
performs  marvelous  feats,  even  causing  fire  to 
come  down  from  heaven  to  earth  in  the  presence  of 

(Apol.  21).  (3)  That  monstrous  sinners,  and  particularly  impious 
tyrants,  were  destined  to  eternal  punishment  in  the  lower  world, 
was  an  idea  not  unknown  to  later  Judaism  and  one  that  was 
especially  common  in  John's  gentile  environment.  Typical  attes- 
tations are:  Homer  Odys,  xi.  576  ff.;  Pindar  Olymp.  ii.  56 ff.;  Plato 
Gorgias  525;  Republic  615;  Virgil  Aen.  vi.  559-627;  Plutarch 
Soc.  Daetn.  22,  Concerning  Whom  God  Is  Slow  to  Punish  22; 
Suetonius  Tiberius  75;  Lucian  True  Hist.  ii.  31;  Cataplus  29. 
(4)  Ultimate  captivity  in  the  burning  pit  of  hell  is  exactly  the 
fate  to  which  John  subsequently  consigns  this  imperial  beast 
(17 : 8,  II ;  19 :  20;  20: 10).  (5)  To  infer  that  Christians  meditated 
armed  resistance  of  their  persecutors  is  a  supposition  quite  out 
of  harmony  with  the  entire  atmosphere  of  Revelation.  Nor  was 
this  a  tendency  of  early  Christianity  against  which  John  might 
suspect  his  readers  to  need  to  be  warned.  But  slaughter  of 
Christians  by  representatives  of  the  emperor  was  exactly  what 
he  anticipated.  (6)  As  subsequently  described  by  John,  the 
supporters  of  the  beast  are  to  be  slain  by  the  sword  that  projects 
from  the  Messiah's  mouth  (19: 21).  (7)  If  punishment  of  Chris- 
tianity's enemies  rather  than  a  warning  against  revolution  is  the 
sense  of  vs.  10,  then  the  obscure  038i  eanv  can  be  taken  as  referring 
to  the  ground  of  Christian  patience,  as  is  clearly  the  case  again 
in  14:12. 


The  Last  Woe 


317 


14  men.  Leading  astray  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth 
by  means  of  the  feats  which  he  was  permitted  to 
perform  on  behalf  of  the  beast,  he  commands  the 
inhabitants  of  the  earth  to  make  an  image  for  the 
beast  who  has  been  revived,  although  still  bearing 

15  the  mark  of  the  fatal  sword  thrust.  And  he  was 
permitted  to  give  breath  to  the  image  of  the  beast 
so  that  the  image  of  the  beast  shoidd  even  speak, 
and  should  decree  that  everyone  be  put  to  death 

16  wlio  refuses  to  worship  the  beast's  image.  He  also 
requires  that  everybody,  both  the  lowly  and  the 
mighty,  the  rich  and  the  poor,  the  free  men  and 
the  slaves,  be  marked  with  a  stamp  upon  their 

1 7  right  hand  or  upon  their  forehead,  and  that  no 
one  can  buy  or  sell  unless  he  has  been  stamped 
with  the  name  of  the  beast  or  with  the  number 
corresponding  to  his  name. 

In  this  fact  lies  hidden  wisdom.  Let  him  who 
has  understanding  calculate  the  number  of  the 
beast,  for  it  is  a  certain  man's  number,  and  the 
number  is  666. 

The  imperial  beast  will  be  supported  by 
another  monster,  lamblike  in  appearance  but 
vicious  in  his  utterances.  His  mission  will  be  to 
eflfect  universal  acceptance  of  the  imperial  cult. 
He  is  the  chief  priest  of  the  cult,  and  a  zealous 
propagandist  who  employs  numerous  devices 


18 


I 


3i8 


The  Revelation  of  John 


for  inducing  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean World  to  worship  the  Satanic  emperor. 
In  John's  day  it  was  not  uncommon  for  propa- 
gandists of  different  religions  to  appeal  to 
miracles  in  support  of  their  respective  cults. 
The  priests  often  managed  to  perform  striking 
feats  which  the  common  people  readily  accepted 
as  supernatural.    This  situation  furnished  the 
setting  for  John's  picture  of  the  methods  to  be 
employed  by  the  chief  priest  of  the  imperial  cult 
who  would  officiate  during  the  period  of  final 
distress.    As  a  means  of  accrediting  the  cult 
the  priest  would  call  down  fire  from  heaven  and 
would  equip  the  beast's  image  with  both  breath 
and  speech.    As  again  in  16:14,  so  here  John 
does  not  seem  to  doubt  the  reality  of  these 
wonders.    It  was  not  the  custom  among  early 
Christians  to  question  their  pagan  contempo- 
raries' ability  to  work  miracles,  but  Christians 
did  afl&rm  that  pagan  wonders  were  simply  mar- 
velous works  of  Satan  and  not  deeds  of  God. 

The  demonic  priest  of  the  imperial  cult  would 
prove  so  efficient  and  thoroughgoing  that  wor- 
ship of  the  emperor  would  be  forced  upon  all 
classes  of  society  and  would  dominate  all 
economic  activities.  John  imagines  that  this 
end  will  be  attained  by  requiring  all  traders  to 


The  Last  Woe 


319 


have  a  license  issued  by  the  imperial  authorities 
in  the  form  of  a  stamp  to  be  impressed  upon 
the  forehead  or  the  hand.  Naturally  such  a 
stamp  would  imprint  the  letters  of  the  imperial 
beast's  name,  or  possibly  a  license  number. 
This  suggests  to  John  a  piece  of  cryptic  wisdom 
by  means  of  which  he  is  able  to  furnish  an 
additional  clue  to  the  identification  of  the 
monster  who  is  to  rule  over  the  Empire  in  the 
closing  days  of  final  agony.  By  summing  up 
the  numerical  values  of  the  letters  in  the  beast's 
name  it  will  be  found  to  coincide  with  the 
number  of  a  certain  man,  the  number  being  666. 
Thus  again  John  alludes  to  Nero.  By  an  occult 
process,  calculating  the  numerical  value  of  the 
name  Nero  Caesar,  written  in  Hebrew 
(Aramaic)  letters  ("(l^ij  *^Cp),  a  total  of  666 
is  obtained.  This  was  a  word  of  "wisdom" 
that  could  be  understood  only  by  one  who  knew 
the  Hebrew  alphabet,  but  perhaps  that  very 
fact  seemed  to  John  all  the  more  significant. 

Both  the  first  and  the  second  beast  depicted 
by  John  are  monsters  to  appear  upon  earth  in 
the  future  after  Satan  has  been  ejected  from 
heaven  and  begins  his  final  war  upon  the  saints. 
The  sufferings  of  Christians  in  John's  own  day 
are  only  foreshadowings  of  future  events.    The 


320 


The  Revelation  of  John 


emperor  Domitian  and  the  priests  of  his  cult 
in  Asia  are  not  counterparts  but  are  only  fore- 
runners of  the  beasts  which  John  has  been 
describing.  Undoubtedly  Domitian  and  his 
agents  furnished  John  his  point  of  departure, 
and  to  some  extent  his  model,  but  the  art  of 
the  seer  was  also  creative,  and  it  would  be 
absurd  to  imagine  that  every  detail  of  the 
picture  can  be  duplicated  in  the  events  of  his 
own  time.  Moreover,  he  aims  to  depict,  not 
scenes  from  real  Ufe,  but  the  heightened 
calamities  of  the  last  times,  when  the  infamous 
Nero,  returning  to  earth  as  the  special  agent  of 
Satan,  will  institute  a  period  of  fiendish  perse- 
cution in  comparison  with  which  the  sufferings 
of  Christians  under  Domitian  will  sink  inio 
relative  insignificance. 

VI.      A  TRIUMPHANT  GROUP  OF  SAINTS  (14:1-5) 

14: 1  Then  in  my  vision  I  beheld  the  Lamb  standing 
upon  Mount  Zion  and  in  company  with  him  were 
a  hundred  and  forty-four  thousand  persons  with 
his  name  and  the  name  of  his  father  inscribed  on 
2  their  foreheads.  And  I  heard  issuing  from  heaven 
a  sound  resembling  the  roaring  of  mighty  breakers 
and  the  rumbling  of  loud  thunder.  The  sound 
which  I  heard  was  like  the  singing  of  harpists 


The  Last  Woe 


321 


3  while  playing  upon  their  harps j  and  they  sang  a 
new  song  as  they  stood  before  the  throne  and  before 
the  four  living  creatures  and  the  four  dignitaries. 
No  one  was  able  to  learn  that  song  except  the  one 
hundred  and  forty-four  thousand  who  had  been 

4  purchased  from  the  earth.  These  are  persons  who 
have  not  been  polluted  by  marriage,  for  they  are 
virgins.  They  are  the  followers  of  the  Lamb  where- 
ever  he  goes.  As  a  first  fruit  for  God  and  the 
Lamb  they  have  been  purchased  from  among  men. 

5  They  have  never  been  known  to  speak  a  lie;  they 
are  irreproachable. 

This  vision  sets  faithful  Christians  in  sharp 
contrast  with  the  heathen  who  worship  the 
emperor  and  receive  his  mark  upon  their  fore- 
heads or  their  right  hands.  John  sees  a  picture 
of  a  select  group  of  saints  standing  upon  Mount 
Zion  in  the  company  of  Christ,  and  he  hears 
the  music  of  a  new  song  which  they  alone  will 
be  able  to  learn.  Although  there  are  exactly  a 
hundred  and  forty-four  thousand  of  these  indi- 
viduals, it  is  not  apparent  that  the  seer  means 
to  identify  them  with  the  same  number  of 
redeemed  Israelites  whom  he  has  seen  in  a 
previous  vision  (7:45.).  They  resemble  more 
closely  the  special  company  of  the  faithful  who 
are  to  occupy  Jerusalem  with  Christ  during  the 


322 


The  Revelation  qfJokn 


The  Last  Woe 


323 


millennium  (20:4-6).  As  a  group  of  excep- 
tionally perfect  saints  they  represent  the  first- 
fruits  of  the  harvest  of  the  righteous  to  be 
gathered  for  God  and  Christ. 

With  this  picture  of  early  triumph  in  mind 
John  would  have  future  generations  of  Chris- 
tians courageously  resist  the  demands  of  the 
beast  when  the  time  of  final  testing  arrives. 
But  the  seer  is  able  to  offer  his  readers  still 
further  assurances.  Not  only  are  the  saints 
sure  of  an  early  reward,  but  in  his  fight  against 
God  the  beast  is  doomed  to  early  defeat.  Both 
the  Satanic  emperor  and  the  kingdom  over 
which  he  presides  are  destined  for  destruction. 
In  the  scenes  which  follow  John  narrates  a  series 
of  visions  forecasting  at  considerable  length  the 
fate  to  overtake  Rome  as  a  result  of  her  antago- 
nism toward  Christians. 

VII.      FATE  OF  THE  BEAST'S  WORSHIPERS 

(14:6-13) 

14:6  Then  I  saw  another  angel  flying  in  mid-air 
with  a  message  of  eternal  truth  to  announce  to 
those  who  live  upon  the  earth,  even  to  every  nation 
7  and  tribe  and  tongue  and  people.  With  a  loud 
voice  he  exclaimed:  Fear  God  and  render  him 
glory ^  for  the  hour  of  his  judgment  has  come; 


therefore  worship  him  who  made  heaven  and  earth 

8  and  sea  and  fountains  of  waters.  Again  a  second 
angel  followed,  exclaiming:  Fallen,  fallen  is  the 
mighty  Babylon  who  has  caused  all  the  nations 
to  drink  of  the  wine  of  the  divine  anger  incurred 

9  by  her  fornication.  Again  a  third  angel  following 
the  others  exclaimed  with  a  loud  voice:  If  anyone 
worships  the  beast  and  his  image  and  receives  a 

10  stamp  upon  his  forehead  or  upon  his  hand,  he 
also  will  drink  of  the  wine  of  God's  wrath  mixed  at 
full  strength  in  the  cup  of  his  anger,  and  will  be 
tormented  with  fire  and  brimstone  in  the  sight  of  the 

1 1  holy  angels  and  in  the  sight  of  the  Lamb;  and  the 
smoke  from  their  place  of  torment  continues  to 
ascend  throughout  eternity;  nor  will  those  who  wor- 
ship the  beast  and  his  image,  or  anyone  who  receives 
the  stamp  of  his  name,  find  any  release  either  day 

12  or  night  from  their  torment.  On  this  fact  rests  the 
patient  endurance  of  the  saints  who  remain  true  to 
the  commands  of  God  and  to  their  faith  in  Jesus, 

13  Then  I  heard  a  voice  from  heaven  exclaiming: 
Write,  Blessed  are  the  dead  who  from  this  time 
forth  die  as  Christians.  Indeed,  says  the  Spirit, 
they  will  find  rest  from  their  toils,  for  their  good 
deeds  will  accompany  them. 

Previously  John  has  described  the  reward 
of  the  saints  as  an  inducement  to  fideUty  on 


41 


324 


The  Revelation  of  John 


the  part  of  Christians  in  their  conflict  with 
the  beast  (14:1-5).  The  next  vision  reveals 
the  unhappy  fate  awaiting  those  who,  yield- 
ing to  the  seductions  of  Satan,  will  worship 
the  emperor  during  the  period  of  final  testing. 
An  angelic  voice  announces  that  in  view  of 
imminent  judgment  all  men  should  make  haste 
to  worship  the  creator  only.  Then  a  second 
messenger  decrees  the  fall  of  Rome,  here  called 
Babylon,  after  the  allegorical  usage  of  apoca- 
lyptic style  previously  illustrated  in  11:8.  The 
city  of  Rome,  representative  of  the  imperial 
demonic  regime,  is  accused  of  having  brought 
all  peoples  under  the  condemnation  of  divine 
wrath  by  inducing  them  to  join  with  her  in  the 
worship  of  Satan's  representative,  the  imperial 
beast.  Employing  the  term  in  the  figurative 
sense  common  among  the  Jews,  John  designates 
such  idolatrous  procedure  as  fornication.  A 
third  angel  solemnly  specifies  the  exact  nature 
of  the  offense  to  be  compliance  with  the 
demands  of  the  future  demonic  emperor  and  his 
priest  whose  activities  were  prophetically  de- 
picted in  chapter  13.  All  who  yield  to  these 
demands  will  be  overtaken  by  a  fearfvd  and 
everlasting  punishment,  the  details  of  which  are 
to  be  revealed  more  fully  in  subsequent  revela- 


The  Last  Woe 


32s 


tions  (i9:2of.;  20:9-15).  This  certainty  is 
said  to  furnish  Christians  a  sure  basis  for 
loyally  adhering  to  their  own  faith,  even  though 
they  may  be  slain  on  account  of  their  opposition 
to  the  beast.  They  are  provided  with  an  addi- 
tional guaranty  of  blessing,  pronounced  by 
another  celestial  voice  upon  those  who  may  die 
with  this  type  of  good  deeds  to  their  credit  on 
the  records  of  heaven. 

Vni.      A  FORECAST  OF  JUDGMENT  (14:14-20) 

14: 14  Then  I  beheld  in  my  vision  a  white  cloud  and 
upon  the  cloud  sat  a  being  resembling  a  man  with 
a  gold  crown  upon  his  head  and  a  sharp  sickle 

15  in  his  hand.  And  another  angel  emerging  from 
the  temple  shouted  with  a  loud  voice  to  him  who 
sat  upon  the  cloud,  Apply  your  sickle  and  reap, 
for  the  time  to  reap  has  come  because  earth's 

16  harvest  is  ripened.  Then  he  who  sat  upon  the 
cloud  thrust  forth  his  sickle  upon  the  earth,  and 
the  earth  was  harvested. 

17  Then  another  angel  emerging  from  the  temple 

18  of  God  in  heaven  also  had  a  sharp  sickle.  And 
another  angel  who  presides  over  the  fire  emerged 
from  the  altar  and  called  with  a  loud  voice  to  him 
who  had  the  sharp  sickle,  Apply  your  sharp  sickle 
and  harvest  the  clusters  from  earths  vine,  for  its 


:;fi 


I 

i 


326 


The  Revelation  of  John 


19  grapes  have  ripened.  Then  the  angel  thrust  forth 
his  sharp  sickle  to  earth  and  harvested  earth's 
vine,  casting  the  grapes  into  the  great  winepress 

20  of  God's  wrath.  The  winepress  was  trodden  out- 
side  the  city,  and  for  a  distance  of  two  hundred 
miles  there  flowed  forth  from  the  winepress  a  stream 
of  blood  so  deep  that  it  reached  even  to  the  horses' 

bridles. 

Here  John  witnesses  a  series  of  symbolic  acts 
performed  by  a  number  of  angelic  beings  who 
forecast  the  destruction  that  is  to  overtake 
sinners.     The   harvesting   of   grain   and   the 
gathering  of  grapes  furnish  the  imagery  used 
in  this  picture,  which  anticipates  the  more 
detailed  account  of  events  attending  the  judg- 
ment, to  be  described  in  its  logical  place  in 
ig-.iiff.     Now  that  the  seer's  visions  have 
carried  him  forward  to  the  period  of  the  two 
beasts'  enormities,  the  judgment  is  so  near  and 
so  certain  that  he  feels  no  inconsistency  in 
looking  upon  a  picture  typical  of  the  impending 
event.   While  the  general  import  of  the  descrip- 
tion is  clear,  some  of  the  details  are  obscure. 
The  figure  seated  upon  the  white  cloud  is  co- 
ordmated  with  other  "angels,"  but  his  like- 
ness to  a  "  man  "  suggests  that  he  is  the  Messiah. 
Yet   the   conquering   Messiah   who   actually 


The  Last  Woe 


327 


executes  the  judgment  described  more  at  length 
in  19: 11-16,  instead  of  using  a  sickle,  slaughters 
his  enemies  with  the  sword  that  projects  from 
his  mouth.  This  contrast  in  the  two  pictures 
probably  is  due  to  the  use  of  different  forms  of 
traditional  imagery  appropriated  by  the  author, 
who  in  both  instances  undoubtedly  has  the 
Messiah  in  mind.  His  reference  to  the  horses' 
bridles  in  verse  20  also  suggests  that  he  is 
thinking  of  the  part  to  be  played  by  the  horse- 
men of  the  Messiah's  army  which  appears  upon 
the  scene  in  19:14.  The  city  on  whose  out- 
skirts the  slaughter  of  the  wicked  is  to  occur 
may  be  either  Jerusalem  or  Rome,  but  more 
probably  John  means  the  latter,  since  this  was 
the  capital  of  the  beast's  empire.  However,  in 
Jewish  tradition,  which  was  the  ultimate  source 
of  John's  imagery,  the  judgment  was  to  be 
staged  at  Jerusalem  or  in  its  vicinity.'  The 
enormous  shedding  of  blood  is  also  a  feature  of 
Jewish  apocalyptic  descriptions.  In  Enoch  it 
is  said  that  streams  will  flow  with  the  blood  of 
the  slain  so  deep  that  "the  horse  shall  walk  up 
to  the  breast  in  the  blood  of  sinners  and  the 
chariot  shall  be  submerged  to  its  height."* 

'Joel  3:i2f.;  Zech.  14:4;  IV  Ezra  13:35;  Bar.  40:1. 
*I  En.  100:1-3. 


328 


The  Revelation  oj  John 


y 


DC.      PREPARATIONS  IN  HEAVEN  (15:  I — 16:  l) 

15:1  /  saw  yet  another  great  and  marvelous  omen 
in  heaven  in  the  form  of  seven  angels  with  seven 
plagues  which  are  the  last  plagues^  for  by  means 
of  them  the  wrath  of  God  finds  full  expression, 

2  /  saw  an  expanse  resembling  a  sea  made  of 
glass  mingled  with  fire,  and  standing  upon  the 
sea  of  glass  with  harps  given  them  by  God,  were 
those  who  conquer  by  refusing  to  worship  the  beast 
and  his  image  and  to  be  marked  with  the  number 

3  of  his  name.  They  sing  the  song  of  God^s  servant 
Moses,  and  the  song  of  the  Lamb:  Great  and 
marvelous  are  thy  doings,  Lord  God  Almighty; 
righteous  and  unerring  are  thy  ways,  0  thou  king 

4  of  the  nations.  Who  will  not  surely  fear  thee,  0 
Lord,  atid  give  glory  to  thy  name  because  thou  only 
art  holy!  For  all  nations  shall  come  and  worship 
before  thee  because  thy  righteous  judgments  have 
been  revealed, 

5  ,  Afterwards  again  I  saw  the  temple,  which  is  the 
tabernacle  of  testimony,  thrown  open  in  heaven, 

6  ami  there  came  forth  from  the  temple  the  seven 
angels  who  had  the  seven  plagues.  They  were 
clothed  in  shining  white  linen  and  wore  gold  girdles 

7  about  their  breasts.  Then  one  of  the  four  living 
creatures  gave  the  angels  seven  gold  bowls  full  of 
the  wrath  of  God  who  lives  throughout  eternity, 


The  Last  Woe 


329 


8  and  the  temple  was  filled  with  smoke  from  the 
glory  and  the  power  of  God,  so  that  no  one  was 
able  to  enter  the  temple  until  the  seven  plagues  in 
charge  of  the  seven  angels  were  inflicted  upon  the 
16:1  earth.  I  also  heard  a  loud  voice  emanating  from 
the  temple  say  to  the  angels.  Go  and  pour  out 
upon  the  earth  the  seven  bowls  of  God's  wrath. 

This  vision  pictures  the  coming  of  the  time 
when  God  will  smite  down  sinners  in  his  anger. 
The  final  stage  of  wrath  is  depicted  in  the  form 
of  seven  terrible  plagues  to  be  let  loose  upon 
the  Roman  Empire  in  punishment  for  its 
acceptance  of  the  imperial  cult.  These  plagues 
recall  the  similar  afflictions  which  fell  upon  the 
world  during  the  earlier  stages  of  the  great 
tribulation  (chaps.  8f.),  but  the  last  plagues 
now  about  to  be  revealed  greatly  exceed  in 
severity  those  of  the  earlier  vision.  The  resem- 
blance, however,  is  sufficiently  close  to  suggest 
that  each  group  represents  a  development  of 
the  same  apocalyptic  interest  which  depicted 
a  series  of  plagues  to  occur  in  the  last  times. 
We  have  already  observed  that  John  doubled 
the  length  of  the  traditional  period  of  distress 
by  allowing  three  and  a  half  years  for  the  time 
of  tribulation  preceding  the  appearance  of  the 
beast,  and  another  three  and  a  half  years  for 


330 


The  Revelation  of  John 


the  activities  of  the  beast.'  Hence  it  was  in- 
evitable that  the  events  of  the  second  period 
should  in  a  measure  parallel  those  of  the  first, 
since  the  descriptive  details  in  each  case  were 
often  derived  from  the  same  traditional  source 
of  apocalyptic  imagery. 

The  solemnity  of  the  scene  is  heightened  by 
an  account  of  the  celestial  preparations  to 
precede  the  final  exhibition  of  God's  wrath. 
Those  who  have  died  for  refusing  to  worship 
the  beast  are  seen  standing  upon  the  glassy  sea 
of  heaven  where  God's  throne  rests  (4:6).  Since 
lightning  as  well  as  rain  descended  from  the  sky, 
the  celestial  ocean  was  thought  to  have  fire 
mingled  with  its  crystal  waters.  The  song  of 
the  triiunphant  saints  is  one  of  victory,  like 
that  of  Moses  and  his  companions  after  they 
had  successfully  escaped  from  Egypt,^  or  such 
a  song  as  the  Lamb  might  have  sung  after  his 
triumph  over  the  cross  and  the  grave.  The 
burden  of  the  song  is  the  ascription  to  God 
of  all  glory  and  power. 

The  temple  of  heaven  is  the  prototype  of 
both  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem  and  the  tent 
of  earlier  times.  The  wrath  of  God  is  thought  of 
in  a  quantitative  way — ^is  hypostatized— as  a 

» See  above,  p.  305.  *  Exod.,  chap.  15. 


The  Last  Woe 


331 


liquid  substance  that  can  be  poured  into  bowls. 
The  glory  and  the  power  of  God  are  similarly 
hypostatized,  being  pictured  as  smoke  filling 
the  celestial  temple  and  refusing  to  clear  away 
until  the  divine  anger  has  been  appeased  by  the 
destruction  of  the  Roman  world. 

X.      JUDGMENT  UPON  THE  EMPEROR'S  SUBJECTS 

(16:2-9) 

16:2  The  first  angel  went  forth  and  emptied  his  bowl 
upon  the  earth.  Then  a  loathsome  and  painful 
ulcer  afflicted  those  persons  who  bore  the  mark  of 

3  the  beast  and  worshiped  his  image.  The  second 
angel  emptied  his  bowl  upon  the  sea,  which  turned 
to  coagulated  blood  like  that  of  a  corpse,  and  every 

4  creature  that  lives  in  the  sea  perished.  The  third 
angel  emptied  his  bowl  upon  the  rivers  and  the 
fountains  of  the  waters,  and  they  also  turned  to 

5  blood.  And  I  heard  the  guardian  angel  of  the 
waters  exclaim,  Righteous  art  thou — the  holy  one 

6  who  was  and  is— for  thou  hast  executed  thy 
judgment  upon  those  who  spilled  blood  of  prophets 
and  saints.    Therefore  thou  hast  given  them  blood 

7  to  drink,  as  they  deserve.  And  I  heard  the  heavenly 
altar  exclaim.  Verily,  Lord  God  Almighty,  un- 

8  erring  and  righteous  are  thy  judgments.  The 
fourth  angel  emptied  his  bowl  on  the  sun,  which 


332 


The  Revelation  of  John 


9  was  permitted  to  burn  mankind  with  its  heat,  and 
men  were  afflicted  with  terrible  heat,  but  they 
reviled  God  who  had  control  of  these  plagues  and 
they  would  not  repent  and  give  him  glory. 

The  first  four  plagues  exhibited  in  this  vision 
are  to  afflict  more  especially  the  subjects  of 
the  emperor,  while  the  last  three  (16:10-21)  are 
aimed  more  directly  at  him  and  his  kingdom. 
The  seer  assumes  that  by  this  time  all  the  pagan 
population  of  the  Roman  world  will  have  yielded 
to  the  seductions  of  Satan  and  will  have  become 
votaries  of  the  imperial  cult.  Therefore  they 
will  be  fitting  objects  of  God's  avenging  wrath. 
In  addition  to  their  idolatrous  enormities  they 
will  also  have  shed  much  innocent  blood  of 
Christian  prophets  and  saints.  Hence  they  are 
to  be  overtaken  by  divine  judgments  similar  to 
those  which  fell  upon  the  Egyptians  who  had 
afflicted  the  people  of  God  in  days  of  old.  The 
plagues  which  smote  the  Egyptians  formed  the 
model  for  the  present  description  of  divine 
punishments,  as  was  similarly  the  case  with  the 
distresses  depicted  in  the  eighth  and  ninth 
chapters  of  Revelation,  where  the  seer  prophe- 
sies the  agonies  of  the  last  times  preceding  the 
coming  of  the  beast.  The  new  features  appear- 
ing in  the  present  connection  are  appropriate  to 


The  Last  Woe 


333 


the  new  situation,  when  the  beast  is  exercis- 
ing his  power.  The  solemnity  of  the  scene  is 
heightened  by  a  declaration  of  the  guardian 
angel^  of  the  waters,  to  the  effect  that  the 
enemies  of  Christianity  are  merely  receiving 
their  due.  The  perversity  of  these  sinners  is 
emphasized  again,  as  in  9 :  20,  by  noting  their 
unwillingness  to  repent. 

XI.   JUDGMENT  UPON  THE  IMPERIAL  REGIME 

(16:10-21) 

16 :  10  The  fifth  angel  emptied  his  bowl  on  the  throne 
of  the  beast,  and  a  pall  of  darkness  spread  over 
his   empire  while  his  subjects,   gnawing  their 

1 1  tongues  in  agony,  reviled  the  God  of  heaven  for 
their  suferings  and  their  ulcers,  and  repented  not 

12  of  their  deeds.  The  sixth  angel  emptied  his  bowl 
upon  the  great  river  Euphrates,  thus  causing  its 
waters  to  dry  up  in  order  that  the  way  m^y  be 

13  made  ready  for  the  kings  from  the  east.  Then  I 
saw  three  evil  spirits  resembling  frogs  emerge  from 
the  mouth  of  the  dragon  and  of  the  beast  and  of 

14  the  false  prophet.  Now  they  are  demonic  spirits 
who  perform  wonders  and  go  forth  to  the  kings  of 
all  the  world  to  gather  them  for  a  battle,  to  occur 
on  the  great  day  of  God  Almighty,    {Behold  I  am 

15  coming  as  a  thief.    Blessed  is  he  who  watches  and 


i 


4 
k 

1l 


334 


The  Revelation  of  John 


keeps  his  garments  ready  in  order  that  he  may 
i6  not  go  naked  and  he  put  to  shame)    And  the 
demonic  spirits  gathered  the  kings  at  the  place 
called  in  Hebrew  Harmagedon. 

17  The  seventh  angel  emptied  his  bowl  on  the  air 
and  a  lovd  voice  issuing  out  of  the  temple  and 
from  the  throne  exclaimed,  It  is  come  to  pass. 

18  Then  followed  flashing  lightnings,  terrifying 
sounds,  and  pealing  thunders,  and  there  was  a 
great  earthquake.  So  great  and  terrible  an  earth- 
quake as  this  has  never  before  been  witnessed 

19  since  man  lived  upon  the  earth.  The  great  city 
was  shattered  into  three  pieces,  and  the  cities  of 
the  nations  fell.  Thus  the  mighty  Babylon  was 
remembered  in  the  presence  of  God  by  inflicting 
upon  her  the  cup  of  the  wine  of  his  fierce  anger. 

20  Every   island   disappeared,   and   no   mountain 

2 1  remained  to  be  seen.  Also  huge  hailstones  of  about 
one  hundred  pounds  each,  fell  from  the  sky  upon 
men,  and  they  reviled  God  on  account  of  the 
plague  of  hail  because  the  distress  caused  by  it 
was  exceedingly  great. 

The  last  three  angels  released  plagues  that 
forecast  the  complete  overthrow  of  the  Roman 
Empire.  The  royal  seat  of  the  beast  was  the 
object  of  the  fifth  angel's  attack,  with  the  result 
that  heavy  darkness  like  that  of  the  ninth 


The  Last  Woe 


335 


Egyptian  plague  is  seen  to  envelop  the  entire 
kingdom.  This  aflSiiction  will  pass  only  to  be 
followed  by  a  still  more  calamitous  event. 
Demonic  spirits  emerge  to  summon  the  forces 
of  evil  for  the  final  conflict  in  which  they  are  to 
suffer  disastrous  defeat  before  the  triumphant 
Messiah.  Thus  this  vision  anticipates  the 
more  detailed  account  of  the  Messiah's  vic- 
tory to  be  described  in  19:11-21.  The  dry- 
ing up  of  the  Euphrates  will  permit  the  wild 
Parthian  tribes  to  participate  in  the  final 
conflict  even  as  they  were  the  source  of  the 
scourge  revealed  when  the  sixth  of  the  trumpet- 
ing angels  gave  the  signal  for  introducing  one 
of  the  severest  afflictions  of  the  first  period  of 
tribulation  (9: 14  ff.).  Here  John  again  repeats 
a  traditional  feature  of  early  apocalyptic  im- 
agery, making  it  also  an  item  in  the  final  woe  of 
the  times  of  the  beast.  But  he  fuses  with  it  the 
additional  hostile  activity  of  the  kings  of  the 
world  who  are  subordinate  to  and  in  full  svm- 
pathy  with  the  last  Satanic  emperor,  an  idea 
expressed  more  clearly  in  17:12-18.  Probably 
the  popular  gentile  superstition  that  Nero  had 
disappeared  into  Parthia,  whence  he  would  re- 
turn to  reclaim  his  kingdom  by  a  bloody  civil 
war,  has  also  affected  John's  thinking,  as  it 


336 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Last  Woe 


337 


does  again  in  his  later  references  to  the  disaster 
which  the  beast  is  to  bring  upon  Rome  itself 
(17:16).  John  gives  the  name  of  the  place  at 
which  the  great  battle  is  to  occur,  but  neither 
the  origin  of  the  term  nor  its  geographical  loca- 
tion is  known. 

Verse  15  is  a  parenthetical  exclamation 
warning  men  to  be  ready  for  the  Messiah's  early 
advent.  Momentarily  the  seer  halts  his  descrip- 
tion of  the  final  battle  in  order  to  advise  his 
readers  of  the  necessity  of  watchful  preparation. 
This  admonitory  utterance  forms  a  distinct 
interruption  of  the  context,  and  interpreters 
have  often  suspected  that  in  the  process  of 
recopying  the  book  some  later  scribe  may  have 
made  the  insertion.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
logical  processes  of  an  apocalyptic  seer  are  not 
so  close-knit  as  to  eliminate  the  possibility  that 
John  himseK  was  responsible  for  the  interrup- 
tion. Mention  of  the  great  day  of  God  Al- 
mighty would  easily  furnish  him  the  incentive 
for  this  threatening  exclamation. 

The  plague  inflicted  by  the  seventh  angel  car- 
ries John's  vision  forward  to  that  climactic  scene 
in  which  the  destruction  of  Rome  is  revealed. 
Amid  accompanying  displays  of  unusual  terror 
a  fearful  earthquake  causes  the  magnificent  mis- 


tress of  the  world  to  crumble  into  three  heaps 
of  ruins.  Thus  the  fierce  anger  of  the  Almighty 
finally  comes  to  expression  in  the  overthrow  of 
Rome.  In  the  wake  of  this  vehement  seismic 
display  other  lesser  afflictions  foUow,  adding  to 
the  agonies  of  the  heathen  peoples  who  still 
remain  alive  to  be  overtaken  by  slaughter  when 
the  Messiah  appears,  an  event  which  has  been 
proleptically  depicted  in  the  preceding  scene. 

xn.    further  identification  of  rome 

(chap.  17) 

17:1  Then  one  of  the  seven  angels  with  the  seven 
bowls  coming  and  speaking  with  me  said:  Come 
let  ms  show  you  the  fate  of  the  great  harlot  who 

2  sits  upon  many  waters.  With  her  the  kings  of  the 
earth  have  committed  fornication,  while  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  earth  have  been  intoxicated  with  the 

3  wine  of  her  fornication.  Then  he  carried  me  away 
in  the  spirit  into  a  desert  where  I  saw  a  wom^n 
seated  upon  a  scarlet  beast  which  was  covered  all 
over  with  blasphemous  words,  and  which  had  seven 

4  heads  and  ten  horns.  The  woman  was  attired  in 
purple  and  scarlet,  and  adorned  with  gold,  precious 
stones,  and  pearls,  while  in  her  hand  was  a  gold 
cup  full  of  the  abominable  things  of  idolatry, 

5  even  the  pollutions  of  her  fornication.     On  her 


338 


The  Revelation  of  John 


forehead  was  inscribed  the  legend,  ^^  Symbol  of  the 
mighty  Babylon,  the  mother  of  harlots  and  of 

6  earths  abominations,^^  I  saw  also  that  the  woman 
was  drunk  with  the  blood  of  the  saints,  that  is, 
with  the  blood  of  the  witnesses  of  Jesus,  On  seeing 
her  I  was  overcome  with  wonder, 

7  Then  the  angel  said  to  me,  Why  do  you 
wonder?  I  will  explain  to  you  the  symbolic 
meaning  of  the  woman,  and  of  the  seven-headed 

8  and  the  ten-horned  beast  which  carries  her.  As 
for  the  beast  which  you  saw,  it  once  was,  but  no 
longer  is,  upon  earth;  it  will  soon  ascend  from  the 
abyss,  but  it  is  destined  for  destruction.  And 
those  inhabitants  of  the  earth,  whose  names  from 
the  beginning  of  the  world  have  not  been  found 
written  in  the  book  of  life  will  marvel  as  they  look 
upon  the  beast  that  was  and  is  not  but  returns. 

9  Here  is  an  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  a 
wise  understanding.  The  seven  heads  represent 
the  seven  hills  [of  Rome]  on  which  the  woman  sits, 

10  Also  the  heads  represent  seven  emperors.  Five 
have  passed  away,  one  is  now  ruling,  the  other 
has  not  yet  come  into  power,  but  when  he  does  his 

11  rule  must  be  brief.  Then  wiU  come  the  beast  who 
once  was,  but  now  is  not,  upon  earth.  Thus  he 
is  an  eighth,  though  also  one  of  the  seven,  and  he 

12  is  destined  for  destruction.    And  the  ten  horns 


The  Last  Woe 


339 


which  you  saw  are  ten  kings,  who  have  not  yet 
received  a  kingdom,  but  who  for  a  single  hour  wiU 
receive  authority  as  kings  in  company  with  the 

13  beast.  They  will  have  a  common  aim,  and  will 
give  their  power  and  authority  to  the  beast,    To- 

14  gether  they  will  fight  with  the  Lamb,  but  the  Lamb 
will  conquer  them  because  he  is  lord  of  lords  and 
king  of  kings,  and  with  him  will  be  his  chosen, 
elect,  and  faithful  followers. 

15  The  angel  also  said  to  me,  The  waters  on  which 
you  saw  the  harlot  sitting  represent  peoples  and 

16  multitudes  and  nations  and  tongues.  The  ten 
horns  which  you  saw  and  the  beast  will  together  hate 
the  harlot,  they  will  make  her  desolate  and  naked, 
they  will  devour  her  flesh,  and  they  will  burn  her 

17  with  fire.  For  God  has  put  it  into  their  hearts  to 
work  his  will  by  acting  in  unison,  and  sur- 
rendering their  rulership  to  the  beast  until  the 

18  decrees  of  God  are  accomplished.  Also  the  woman 
whom  you  saw  is  the  great  city  which  holds 
dominion  over  the  kings  of  the  earth. 

At  the  end  of  the  preceding  chapter  John 
had  been  carried  forward  in  his  vision  to  a  point 
where  he  was  ready  to  witness  a  prophetic 
picture  of  the  Messiah's  triumphant  advent. 
But  before  passing  to  this  victorious  scene 
(19:11  fl.)  the  downfall  of  Rome  is  reaffirmed 


1i 


f 

m 


I 


340 


The  Revelation  of  John 


by  means  of  several  further  revelations.  Since 
the  hope  of  Rome's  overthrow  was  of  crucial 
importance  to  the  Christians  of  John's  day, 
he  dwells  at  great  length  upon  the  topic.  In 
order  that  his  readers  may  be  fully  assured 
of  an  early  deliverance  from  their  enemies, 
the  seer  receives  minute  instructions  from 
an  angel,  who  takes  great  pains  to  make  the 
identification  of  Rome  certain  and  also  to 
specify  the  time  at  which  her  overthrow  would 
occur. 

Rome  is  figuratively  described  as  a  wicked 
woman,  luxuriously  attired,  whose  sway  ex- 
tends over  many  waters  and  who  rides  upon  a 
monstrous  beast.  The  blasphemous  names 
upon  the  beast,  together  with  its  seven  heads 
and  ten  horns,  readily  identify  it  with  the 
great  future  persecuting  emperor  previously 
described  in  chapter  13.  He  will  demand  wor- 
ship of  himself  from  all  his  subjects.  Again, 
using  the  characteristic  figure  of  fornication  to 
describe  this  heinous  form  of  idolatry,  the  kings 
of  the  earth  are  charged  with  the  crime  of 
worshiping  the  emperor,  while  the  populace  has 
become  completely  intoxicated  with  this  same 
iniquity.  As  Babylon  was  the  iniquitous  city 
of  ancient  times,  so,  for  John,  Rome  was  the 


The  Last  Woe 


341 


modem  Babylon,  drunk  with  the  blood  of  the 
martyred  Christians. 

In  interpreting  the  picture  the  angel  dwells 
first  upon  the  significance  of  the  beast.  It  is 
the  same  monster  who  was  introduced  to  the 
reader  in  chapter  13.  This  final  representative 
of  the  imperial  line  is  to  be  the  reincarnation 
of  a  previous  emperor,  who  is  not  upon  earth 
when  John  writes,  but  who  is  to  appear  when 
the  time  for  inaugurating  the  third  woe  arrives. 
John's  readers  are  informed  that  the  time  for  the 
imperial  beast's  advent  is  near  at  hand.  In  fact 
the  date  can  be  fixed  within  comparatively 
narrow  limits.  The  seven  heads  of  the  beast 
represent  seven  emperors,  and  the  beast  him- 
seK  is  to  be  the  eighth,  though  he  is  also  a 
reincarnation  of  one  of  the  previous  seven.  At 
the  time  when  the  vision  is  revealed  to  John 
five  emperors  have  already  ruled,  and  the  sixth 
now  in  power  is  to  be  followed  by  a  seventh, 
whose  reign  wiU  be  brief.  Then  the  beast,  who 
as  already  observed  is  an  incarnation  of  Nero, 
will  appear  and  dominate  the  world  for  three 
and  a  half  years  (12:6;  13 : 5)  before  the  coming 
of  the  Messiah.  By  this  method  of  reckon- 
ing it  was  possible  for  John  to  determine 
approximately  the  date  of  Rome's  overthrow. 


342 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Apparently  he  expected  this  event  to  occur 
within  about  a  generation  of  his  own  time. 

However  satisfactory  this  chronological 
scheme  may  have  seemed  to  John,  it  encounters 
di£5culties  when  brought  into  comparison  with 
exact  statistics  of  Roman  history.  The  early 
emperors  were  Augustus  (27  B.C. — 14  a.d.), Tibe- 
rius (14-37),  Caligula  (37-41),  Claudius  (41- 
54),  Nero  (54-68),  Galba  (68-69),  Otho  (69), 
Vitellius  (69),  Vespasian  (69-79),  Titus  (79-81), 
Domitian  (81-96).  If  John  had  consulted  the 
official  archives  he  would  have  learned  that  the 
sixth  emperor,  during  whose  reign  he  purports 
to  have  received  his  vision,  was  Galba.  Or  if  he 
ignored  Galba,  Otho,  and  Vitellius  as  being 
merely  aspirants  to  power,  but  never  actual 
emperors,  the  sixth  ruler  would  be  Vespasian. 
On  the  other  hand  the  circumstances  which 
called  forth  the  composition  of  Revelation  show 
that  it  was  written  during  the  closing  years  of 
Domitian's  reign.' 

One  method  of  explaining  the  diJfficulty  is  to 
assume  that  John  uses  an  older  apocal^'ptic 
fragment  originally  composed  in  the  time  of 
Vespasian  and  incorporated  here  without  a  suit- 
able change  in  the  numerical  designations.    K 

« See  above,  pp.  42-54' 


The  Last  Woe 


343 


this  h)rpothesis  is  correct,  John  apparently 
regarded  Titus  as  the  sixth  emperor,  whose 
reign  was  to  be  short,  and  Domitian  was  made 
a  reincarnation  of  Nero.  But  this  explanation 
offers  serious  difficulty.  In  the  first  place  it  is 
very  doubtful  whether  conditions  under  Vespa- 
sian were  such  as  to  call  into  existence  an  apoca- 
lyptic prophecy  of  this  type.  Moreover,  if  John 
gave  any  critical  attention  to  the  numerical 
data  involved,  the  necessity  for  a  change  in  the 
statistics  would  have  been  apparent.  So  far  as 
identifying  Domitian  with  Nero  is  concerned, 
it  is  quite  inconsistent  with  the  entire  repre- 
sentation of  the  situation  elsewhere  in  the  book. 
John  clearly  depicts  the  present  sufferings  of 
Christians  as  merely  preliminary  to  the  coming 
of  a  future  tribulation  much  greater  in  severity 
than  anything  yet  experienced.  Nor  is  the 
beast  to  appear  until  the  period  of  tribulation 
is  within  three  and  a  half  years  of  the  end  (13:5), 
but  Domitian  had  been  in  power  ten  years  or 
more  before  John  wrote  Revelation. 

On  the  whole,  John's  perplexing  chronology 
is  most  satisfactorily  explained  by  remembering 
that  he  was  primarily  an  apocalyptic  seer  and 
not  a  statistical  historian.  For  him  it  was  more 
important  that  a  number  should  conform  to 


; 


4 


344 


The  Revelation  of  John 


sacred  requirements  than  that  it  should  be 
verifiable  in  actual  records.  Indeed,  it  is  quite 
possible  that  John  would  have  found  it  difficult 
in  his  situation  to  obtain  an  accurate  hst  of 
emperors  extending  over  a  hundred  years  of 
past  history,  even  had  he  felt  it  necessary  to 
proceed  in  this  fashion.  This  information  would 
not  have  been  a  matter  of  such  conunon  knowl- 
edge that  the  residents  of  Asia  would  be  able 
to  give  offhand  Domitian's  number  in  the  line 
of  imperial  succession  any  more  than  the 
average  citizen  of  the  United  States  is  able  to 
give  a  chronological  list  of  presidents.  But  a 
seer  does  not  need  to  consult  archives  with  pain- 
ful accuracy  for  his  history.  John's  fondness 
for  the  sacred  number  seven  and  the  popular 
notion  about  Rome's  seven  hills  may  have  been 
for  him  a  sufficient  basis  for  assuming  that  just 
seven  ordinary  emperors  would  successively 
hold  sway  over  the  Roman  world  before  the 
beast  appeared.  Moreover,  the  beast  would 
not  be  a  violation  of  the  sacred  number  seven, 
since,  although  an  eighth  emperor,  he  was 
really  to  be  a  second  incarnation  of  one  of  the 
seven.  Under  the  inspiration  of  an  apocalyptic 
vision,  and  remote  from  circles  of  critical  his- 
torical investigation,  it  was  perfectly  easy  for 


The  Last  Woe 


345 


John  to  assume  that  Domitian  was  the  sixth 
emperor. 

Even  though  John's  version  of  Roman 
poUtical  history  was  not  based  upon  careful 
investigation  of  official  records,  it  did  rest  upon 
data  which  undoubtedly  seemed  to  the  seer 
entirely  adequate.  In  the  first  place  a  reincar- 
nated Nero  was  the  appropriate  person  to  play 
the  role  of  the  beast.  Popular  Roman  tradition 
regarding  his  reappearance,  and  his  unenviable 
reputation  as  an  enemy  of  Christians,  pecul- 
iarly fitted  him  for  this  office.  The  persecution 
of  Christians  for  refusal  to  worship  the  emperor 
had  been  begun  by  Domitian,  but  as  yet  the 
movement  was  not  general,  nor  had  any  large 
number  of  the  faithful  been  called  upon  to  pay 
the  death  penalty  before  Revelation  was  writ- 
ten. John  anticipates  that  it  will  take  a  few 
years  yet  for  the  hostility  to  develop  those 
gigantic  proportions  which  it  will  assume  under 
the  beast.  In  the  meantime  Domitian  will  be 
followed  by  a  successor  whose  reign  will  be 
short.  Thus  time  is  allowed  for  the  agonies  of 
the  period  of  tribulation  to  increase  to  a  point 
where  the  beast  may  fittingly  begin  his  three 
and  a  half  years  of  fiendish  activity,  which  is 
to  be  ended  by  the  coming  of  the  Messiah. 


I 


I 


346 


The  Revelation  of  John 


A  fanciful  feature  of  the  beast's  rule  will  be 
the  emergence  of  ten  vassal  kings  who  will 
come  to  his  support  and  be  one  with  him  in  his 
wicked  designs  (vss.  12-17).  Together  they 
will  go  down  to  defeat  before  the  conquering 
Messiah,  but  not  until  they  have  done  much 
damage  to  Rome.  These  remarks  of  the  seer 
seem  to  be  an  allusion  to  the  civil  strife  which 
Nero  was  popularly  expected  to  introduce  when 
he  returned  from  Parthia^  and  the  prophecy 
that  the  city  would  suffer  from  fire  at  the  hands 
of  the  beast  and  his  assistants  recalls  the 
general  belief  that  Nero  had  been  responsible 
for  the  conflagration  from  which  Rome  had 
suffered  in  the  year  64  a.d. 

Xni.  PRONOUNCEMENT  OF  DOOM  UPON  ROME 

(18:1-8) 

18:1        Afterwards  I  saw  another  angel  descend  from 
heaven  with  great  authority,  and  the  earth  was 

2  illumined  with  his  glory.  He  shouted  with  a 
powerful  voice:  Fallen,  fallen  is  the  mighty 
Babylon.  She  has  become  a  dwelling  place  of 
demons,  a  stronghold  of  every  sort  of  evil  spirit 
and  a  stronghold  of  every  sort  of  unclean  and 

3  loathsome  bird;  because  all  the  nations  have  drunk 
of  the  wine  of  the  divine  anger  incurred  by  herforni- 


The  Last  Woe 


347 


cation,  aiul  the  kings  of  the  earth  have  committed 
fornicationwith  her,  and  thetraders  of  the  earth  have 
grown  rich  from  the  extravagance  of  her  luxury. 

4  /  also  heard  another  voice  from  heaven 
exclaim:  Come  forth  out  of  her,  my  people,  in 
order  that  you  may  not  share  her  sins,  and  m^y 

5  tu)t  stiff er  from  her  plagues.  For  the  mountain  of 
her  sins  has  reached  even  to  the  skies,  and  God  has 

6  remembered  her  unjust  deeds.  Repay  her  in  her 
own  coin,  and  doubly  requite  her  for  her  deeds; 
mix  for  her  a  double  portion  in  the  cup  of  wrath 

7  which  she  has  mixed  for  others;  according  as  she 
has  paraded  her  glory  and  luxury  mete  out  to  her 
torment  and  lamentation.  Since  in  her  arrogance 
she  says,  I  sit  in  queenly  estate  and  am  no  widow, 

8  nor  shall  I  ever  experience  grief,  therefore  plagues 
of  death,  lamentation  and  famine  will  overtake 
her  in  one  day  and  she  will  be  burned  with  fire. 
For  powerful  is  the  Lord  God  who  has  decreed 
judgment  on  her. 

The  prospect  of  Rome's  overthrow  is  a  sub- 
ject upon  which  the  seer  loves  to  linger.  The 
doom  pronounced  upon  her  in  14 : 8  is  reiterated, 
and  so  sure  is  John  of  her  ultimate  downfall 
that  it  becomes  an  already  accomplished  fact 
in  his  vision.  The  reasons  for  her  destruction 
are  threefold.    In  the  first  place  she  has  been 


348 


The  Revelation  of  John 


guilty  of  causing  all  the  world  to  participate  in 
the  fornication  of  her  idolatrous  worship  of  the 
emperor.  Not  only  the  populace  but  also 
the  subject  princes  of  the  Roman  world  have 
been  induced  to  accept  the  imperial  cult,  thus 
making  it  unsafe  for  a  nonconforming  Christian 
to  reside  in  any  part  of  the  Empire.  Lastly, 
the  luxurious  customs  of  the  city  have  called 
into  being  a  vast  commercial  activity  in  which 
men  grow  wealthy  and  thus  have  their  minds 
turned  away  from  otherworldly  matters  of 
which  the  early  Christians  were  advocates. 
John's  leanings  toward  asceticism  have  already 
become  apparent  in  the  warnings  addressed  to 
the  churches,  and  it  was  but  natural  that  the 
commerce  of  the  Mediterranean  World,  which 
luxurious  Roman  ways  had  made  possible, 
should  receive  his  vigorous  condemnation. 

Christians  are  called  upon  to  forsake  Rome 
lest  they  become  victims  of  her  impending 
punishment.  The  seer  is  confident  that  her 
glory  is  at  an  end,  for  suddenly  the  wrath  of 
God  is  to  be  let  loose  upon  her.  The  picture 
which  is  given  of  her  desolate  condition  was 
suggested  by  similar  language  used  of  the 
ancient  Babylon  by  Jewish  writers.^ 

»Isa.  13:19-22;  cf.  34:8-15;  Jcr.  51:31-58. 


N. 


The  Last  Woe  349 

XrV.   LAMENTATION  OVER  ROME'S  FALL 

(18:9-20) 

18:9  The  kings  of  the  earth  who  have  committed 
fornication  with  her  and  indidged  in  her  luxuries 
will  weep  and  lament  when  they  see  the  smoke  of 

10  her  burning.  Standing  afar  of  for  fear  of  her 
torment,  they  exclaim,  Woe,  woe  is  come  upon 
the  great  city,  the  powerful  city  of  Babylon,  for  in 
a  single  hour  has  thy  judgment  come  upon  thee. 

11  Also  the  merchants  of  the  earth  will  weep  and 
mourn  over  her  because  there  is  no  longer  anyone 

12  left  to  buy  their  wares — cargoes  of  gold  and  silver 
and  gems  and  pearls,  garments  of  fine  linen  and 
purple  and  silk  and  scarlet,  every  variety  of  citron 
wood  and  every  kind  of  vessel  made  of  ivory  or 

13  costly  wood  or  bronze  or  iron  or  marble,  also 
cinnamon  and  amomum  ointment  and  perfume 
and  myrrh  and  frankincense  and  wine  and  olive 
oil  and  fine  flour  and  wheat,  cargoes  of  horses  and 
of  vehicles  and  of  slaves  and  of  human  lives. 

14  The  accumulations  of  thy  souths  desire  have 
departed  from  thee,  all  luxuries  and  adornments 
are  lost  to  thee,  and  never  again  will  they  be 
recovered. 

15  The  merchants  of  these  wares  who  grew  rich 
from  their  trade  with  her  stood  afar  of  for  fear 
of  her  torment,  exclaiming  as  they  wept  and 


>^ 


3SO 


The  Revelation  of  John 


i6  mourned:  Woe,  woe  is  come  upon  the  great  city 
which  was  arrayed  in  garments  oj  fine  linen  and 
purple  and  scarlet,  and  was  adorned  with  gold 
and  gems  and  pearls,  for  in  a  single  hour  has 
such  vast  wealth  been  destroyed. 

17  And  every  navigator  and  every  one  who  travels 
by  water,  sailors  and  every  kind  of  seafaring 

18  laborer,  stood  afar  of  exclaiming  as  they  gazed 
upon  the  smoke  of  her  burning,  What  city  is  like 

19  the  great  city?  And  they  threw  dust  upon  their 
heads  as  they  cried  aloud,  weeping  and  mourning: 
Woe,  woe  is  come  upon  the  great  city  in  which  all 
owners  of  ships  became  rich  through  catering  to 
her  extravagance,  for  in  a  single  hour  she  has 
been  destroyed, 

20  Gloat  over  her,  0  heaven,  even  you  saints  and 
apostles  and  prophets,  for  God  has  given  you  youf 
revenge  upon  her. 

The  actual  destruction  of  the  city  of  Rome 
is  expected  to  precede  the  overthrow  of  the  rest 
of  the  heathen  world.  The  kings  who  have 
been  subject  to  Rome  and  those  persons  who 
have  been  engaged  in  commercial  activities  will 
remain  to  mourn  the  downfall  of  the  great 
metropolis.  The  subordinate  princes  had  been 
guilty  of  sharing  her  luxury,  particularly  her 
worship   of   the   emperor,   while   traders  had 


The  Last  Woe 


351 


grown  wealthy  in  ministering  to  her  extravagant 
tastes.  Therefore  they  too  must  suffer  by 
witnessing  her  overthrow.  With  evident  satis- 
faction John  portrays  their  astonishment  and 
distress.  Kings  lament  the  loss  of  their 
patroness,  and  merchants  bemoan  the  loss  of 
their  market.  The  mourning  of  the  heathen 
over  Rome  is  modeled  after  Ezekiel's  account 
of  the  lamentation  over  Tyre,^  but  John  adds 
new  items  to  the  description  in  accordance  with 
his  own  particular  situation. 

The  seer^s  hostility  toward  the  active  com- 
mercial life  of  the  age  is  especially  pronounced. 
Rome  was  the  great  world-market  to  which 
wares  from  all  parts  of  the  Empire  were  brought. 
She  purchased  costly  gems,  elaborate  garments, 
handsome  ornaments,  expensive  unguents,  deli- 
cate foods,  horses  and  vehicles,  numerous 
slaves,  and  many  gladiators  whose  very  lives 
were  bartered  to  satisfy  Rome's  lust  for  blood. 
The  sea  was  the  chief  route  by  which  merchan- 
dise was  imported,  hence  shipowners,  navi- 
gators, and  all  who  gain  a  livelihood  upon  the 
sea  will  join  in  the  lamentation.  But  the 
slaughtered  saints  in  heaven  will  view  with 
complete   satisfaction   this   display   of   divine 

*Ezek.,  chaps.  27!. 


t 


352 


The  Revelation  of  John 


vengeance  for  which  they  have  been  so  patiently 
waiting  (6:9-11). 

XV.      CERTAINTY  OF  ROME'S  DESTRUCTION 

(18:21-24) 

18:21  Then  a  powerftd  angel  taking  up  a  stone  as 
large  as  a  millstone,  cast  it  into  the  sea,  exclaim- 
ing: In  this  violent  manner  will  the  great  city 
of  Babylon  be  hurled  to  destruction  and  never 

22  again  be  seen.  No  music  of  harpists  and  singers 
and  flute  players  and  trumpeters  mil  ever  again 
be  heard  in  thee,  nor  mill  any  sort  of  craftsman 
ever  again  be  found  in  thee,  nor  will  the  grinding 

23  of  the  mill  ever  again  be  heard  in  thee.  No  light 
of  a  lamp  will  ever  again  shine  in  thee,  and  no 
voice  of  bridegroom  or  bride  will  ever  again  be 
heard  in  thee.  For  thy  merchants  were  the  great 
men  of  the  earth,  and  by  thy  magic  all  the  nations 

24  were  led  astray.  And  in  her  was  found  blood  of 
prophets  and  saints  and  of  all  who  have  been 
slain  on  earth. 

The  final  scene  confirming  the  prophecy  of 
Rome's  destruction  is  a  symbolic  act  performed 
by  a  powerful  angel,  who  hurls  a  great  millstone 
into  the  sea,  where  it  is  instantly  lost  from  view. 
So  shall  the  wicked  city  vanish  from  the  face  of 
the  earth  when  overtaken  by  the  day  of  God's 


TJie  Last  Woe 


353 


judgment.  No  form  of  activity  will  any  longer 
remain  on  the  spot  where  she  has  stood.  Her 
luxurious  commercial  life,  the  magic  of  her 
idolatry,  and  her  cruel  slaughter  of  Christians 
have  marked  her  for  irrevocable  and  eternal 
doom. 

This  vision  brings  the  seer  to  another  note- 
worthy landmark  on  his  journey.  He  repre- 
sented the  distressing  period  of  the  third  woe 
as  a  time  when  Satan,  after  his  ejection  from 
heaven,  would  direct  his  hostility  especially 
against  Christians.  He  would  choose  as  his 
immediate  agent  a  monstrous  emperor  that 
would  demand  universal  worship  from  his  sub- 
jects. Christians'  refusal  to  comply  with  this 
demand  would  bring  upon  them  a  terrible  per- 
secution. But  since  God  had  already  begun 
action  against  the  powers  of  evil  by  ejecting 
Satan  from  heaven,  the  latter's  depredations 
upon  earth  could  at  most  continue  only  a  short 
time.  Therefore  his  representative,  the  city  of 
Rome,  was  necessarily  destined  for  early 
destruction.  With  the  accomplishment  of  this 
event  Christians  would  be  fully  vindicated,  and 
the  time  for  the  Messiah's  advent  would  arrive. 

John  seeks  to  comfort  his  suffering  fellow- 
Christians    with     this    promise    of     Rome's 


'4, 


r^ 


\ 


354 


The  Revelation  of  John 


overthrow.  Their  present  trials  under  Domitian 
are  only  a  foretaste  of  the  afflictions  to  overtake 
them  in  the  last  times,  but  they  may  be  certain 
of  ultimate  triumph.  After  the  death  of  the 
present  emperor  a  successor  will  rule  for  a  brief 
period  before  the  coming  of  the  beast  who  is  to 
reign  three  and  a  half  years.  Then  Rome  will 
perish  and  Christians'  sufferings  will  be  avenged. 


CHAPTER  Vn 

THE  FINAL  TRIUMPH  (REV.,  CHAPS.  19-22) 

John's  visions  of  final  distress  had 
culminated  in  a  vivid  description  of  Rome's 
overthrow.  Long  and  fondly  the  seer  had 
lingered  upon  scenes  depicting  the  fate  to  over- 
take the  wicked  city  in  punishment  for  its 
advocacy  of  emperor- worship  and  its  consequent 
persecution  of  Christianity.  It  remains  for  him 
to  describe  briefly  the  final  triumph  of  righteous- 
ness which  is  to  bring  an  end  to  the  present  evil 
order  and  to  result  in  the  establishment  of  a 
new  regime,  where  the  saints  will  enjoy  a  life 
of  perfect  bliss. 

The  first  scene  in  these  closing  visions  is  one 
of  celestial  rejoicing  over  the  downfall  of  Rome 
and  the  early  advent  of  the  Messiah  (19:1-10). 
The  triumphant  appearing  of  the  Messiah 
(19:11-21)  and  his  rule  of  one  thousand  years 
with  the  martyrs  upon  earth  (20:1-6)  are 
briefly  described.  At  the  close  of  the  millen- 
nium Satan  is  to  be  temporarily  released  in 
order  that  his  activities  may  provide  a  setting 
for    the    enactment    of    the    final    judgment 

355 


35^ 


The  Revelation  of  John 


(20:7-15).  This  event  is  to  be  followed  im- 
mediately by  the  dissolution  of  the  old  order 
of  existence  and  the  establishment  of  a  new 
world  (21:1-8).  This  general  picture  of  the 
new  age  is  supplemented  by  a  more  extended 
account  of  the  new  Jerusalem  in  which  the 
righteous  are  to  live  happily  throughout  eternity 
(21:9—22:5).  Then  the  book  closes  with  a 
series  of  final  instructions  to  John  (22:6-17) 
and  a  few  brief  exhortations  to  the  readers 
(22:18-21). 

I.      REJOICING  IN  HEAVEN  (19:1-10) 

19: 1  Afterwards  I  heard  a  sound  resembling  a  loud 
shout  of  a  great  multitude  in  heaven  eocclaiming: 
Hallelujah,  salvation  and  glory  and  power  are 

2  the  possession  of  our  God,  for  his  judgments  are 
unerring  and  righteous.  By  executing  judgment 
upon  the  great  harlot  who  ruined  the  earth  with 
her  fornications,  he  has  eocacted  vengeance  from 
her  for  the  blood  of  his  servants. 

3  And  a  second  time  the  heavenly  voices  ex- 
claimed:  Hallelujah,  for  throughout  all  eternity 

4  smoke  keeps  arising  from  her.  Also  the  twenty- 
four  dignitaries  and  the  four  living  creatures 
falling  down  and  worshiping  God  who  occupies 

5  the  throne,  exclaimed.  Verily,  hallelujah.    And  a 


The  Final  Triumph 


357 


voice  emanating  from  the  throne,  eocclaimed:  Let 
all  his  servants,  those  of  both  low  and  high  degree 
who  fear  his  name,  render  praise  to  our  God, 

6  Again  I  heard  a  sound  resembling  the  shout  of 
a  great  multitude  and  the  roaring  of  mighty 
breakers  and  the  pealing  of  loud  thunder,  ex- 
claiming: Hallelujah,  for  the  Lord  God  Almighty 

7  has  assumed  his  rule.  Let  us  hail  him  and 
rejoice  and  render  him  glory,  for  the  marriage  of 
the  Lamb  is  now  to  take  place,  and  his  bride  has 

8  made  herself  ready.  She  has  been  permitted  to  robe 
herself  in  shining  white  fine  linen.  The  fine  linen 
as  you  know  is  the  righteous  deeds  of  the  saints, 

9  Then  an  angel  said  to  me.  Write,  blessed  are 
those  who  have  been  called  to  the  marriage  feast 
of  the  Lamb,    Again  he  said  to  me.  These  are  the 

10  reliable  words  of  God,  Then  I  fell  at  his  feet  to 
worship  him,  but  he  said  to  me,  Beware,  stop  that, 
for  I  am  a  fellow-servant  with  you  and  your 
brethren,  who  have  received  the  testimony  of  Jesus; 
worship  God,  The  testimony  of  Jesus  is,  as  you 
know,  the  inspiration  of  prophecy. 

The  celestial  hosts  exult  over  the  prospective 
downfall  of  the  city  of  Rome,  hailing  the  event 
as  God's  vindication  of  the  persecuted  saints 
who  had  been  slain  for  their  refusal  to  partici- 
pate in  the  worship  of  the  emperor.    A  further 


;1 


ii"l< 
'':*i 


358 


The  Ra^elation  of  John 


occasion  for  rejoicing  lies  in  the  fact  that  the 
time  for  the  Messiah's  advent  had  arrived. 
This    predicted    consummation    is    somewhat 
mysteriously  described  as  the  marriage  of  the 
Lamb,  to  be  accompanied  by  a  wedding  banquet 
at  which  the  saints  are  guests.    Probably  John 
thinks  of  the  new  Jerusalem  as  the  Messiah's 
bride.    This  splendidly  adorned  celestial  city 
is  now  ready  to  be  let  down  upon  earth  in  order 
to  provide  a  place  of  residence  for  the  victorious 
Messiah  after  he  has  overthrown  his  Satanic 
enemies.     The  parenthetical  remark  that  the 
bride's  shining  robes  are  to  be  identified  with 
the  righteous  deeds  of  the  saints  has  no  obvious 
meaning  and  is  commonly  regarded  as  an  inter- 
pretative comment  appended  by  some  Chris- 
tian  scribe   when   recppying   the   text.     The 
remark   would   have   been   appropriate   in   a 
Christian  circle  which  regarded  the  saints  them- 
selves, or  the  church,  as  the  bride,  but  appar- 
ently for  John  it  was  the  new  Jerusalem  that 
held  this  place  of  distinction  (21:2,  9;  22:17). 
The   representation  of   the  Messiah   as  a 
bridegroom,  whose  advent  is  the  occasion  for  a 
banquet  of  the  saints,  was  a  phase  of  Jewish 
and  early  Christian  apocalyptic  thinking,  while 
the  people  of  Israel  or  Zion  itself  represented 


19:11 


The  Final  Triumph 


359 


the  bride.'  This  type  of  imagery  naturally 
appealed  to  John,  serving  as  it  did  to  heighten 
the  mystery  and  awe  of  impending  events.  At 
this  point  the  dignity  of  the  Christian  prophet 
is  especially  stressed  by  a  report  of  the  seer's 
conversation  with  the  angel.  The  speaker's 
position  in  the  angelic  world  is  not  defined,  but 
his  dignity  is  represented  as  in  no  respect 
superior  to  that  of  John  and  his  fellow- 
Christians,  who  are  in  possession  of  the  pro- 
phetic truth  which  has  been  communicated  to 
them  by  Jesus.  The  revelation  which  Jesus 
mediates  to  his  followers  is  regarded  as  the 
ultimate  source  of  every  Christian  prophet's 
wisdom,  and  the  possession  of  such  knowledge 
by  Christians  is  thought  to  place  them  on  a 
level  of  dignity  with  the  angels.  At  the  same 
time  the  author  probably  aimed  a  tacit  protest 
against  the  growing  tendency,  already  manifest 
in  certain  Jewish  and  Jewish-Christian  circles 
of  Asia,  to  worship  angels.^ 

n.      THE  TRIUMPHANT  MESSIAH  (l9:il~2l) 

Then  I  saw  the  heavens  opened  and  beheld  a 
while  horse,  and  sealed  Ihereon  was  Ihe  failhful 

» IV  Ezra  10:25  ff.;   Mark  2:19;  Matt.  22:1  ff.;  25:1  ff.; 
Luke  12:355. 

'See  Col.  2:i8f. 


:{% 


36o 


The  Revelation  of  John 


and  reliable  one,  who  judges  and  wages  war  in 

12  righteousness.  His  eyes  flashed  like  a  fl^me  of 
fire,  upon  his  head  were  many  diadems,  and 
inscribed  upon  him  was  a  name  known  only  to 

13  himself.  He  wore  a  garment  dyed  with  blood,  aftd 
the  name  by  which  he  was  called  was  the  Logos 

14  of  God.  He  was  followed  by  the  warriors  of 
heaven  attired  in  shining  white  fine  linen  and 

15  riding  upon  white  horses.  From  his  mouth  pro- 
jected a  sharp  sword  with  which  he  is  to  smite 
down  the  nations,  for  he  will  rule  them  with  a 
rod  of  iron  and  will  tread  the  winepress  of  the 

16  fierce  anger  of  God  Almighty.  Inscribed  upon 
his  garment  and  upon  his  thigh  was  the  title,  King 
of  Kings  and  Lord  of  Lords. 

17  Then  I  saw  an  angel  standing  on  the  sun,  and 
shouting  with  a  loud  voice  he  called  to  all  the 
birds  which  fly  in  mid-air:  Come,  assemble,  for 

18  the  great  feast  of  God  in  order  that  you  may  eat 
flesh  of  kings  and  flesh  of  commanders  and  flesh 
of  strong  men  and  flesh  of  horses  and  of  their 
riders  and  flesh  of  everybody,  both  free  men  and 
slaves  and  those  of  both  low  and  high  degree. 

19  Then  I  saw  the  beast  and  the  kings  of  the 
earth  and  their  hosts  assembled  for  battle  with  the 
one  who  sat  upon  the  horse  and  with  his  army. 

20  But  the  beast  was  captured  together  with  his  false 


TJie  Final  Triumph 


361 


prophet,  who  performed  on  his  behalf  marvelous 
feats,  by  which  he  led  astray  those  who  received 
the  mark  of  the  beast  and  worshiped  his  image. 
Both  of  these  beings  were  thrown  alive  into  the 
21  flery  lake  of  burning  brimstone,  but  the  rest  of 
their  hosts  were  slain  with  the  sword  projecting 
from  the  mouth  of  the  one  who  was  sitting  upon 
the  horse,  and  all  the  birds  of  heaven  gorged  them- 
selves upon  the  carcasses. 

The  conquering  Messiah  as  seen  by  John  is 
an  impressive  figure.  The  details  of  the  scenery 
are  a  combination  of  Jewish  and  early  Christian 
imagery,  including  also  some  features  of  popular 
gentile  thinking,  all  blended  together  into  a 
new  picture  by  the  vividness  of  the  seer's  own 
imaginative  powers.  Here  the  warrior  Messiah 
does  not  appear  riding  upon  a  cloud  as  in 
certain  other  Jewish  and  Christian  representa- 
tions, but  is  mounted  upon  a  white  horse.  His 
angelic  army  is  also  composed  of  horsemen. 
The  use  of  the  horse  in  apocalyptic  pictures  was 
undoubtedly  common  in  John's  day,  especially 
in  quarters  where  Persian  thinking  had  exerted 
a  perceptible  influence. 

The  flashing  eye  of  the  Messiah,  the  sword 
projecting  from  his  mouth,  and  his  harsh  rule 
over  the  nations  are  features  which  John  had 


ti 


"j  ;l 


3^2 


The  Revelation  of  John 


noted  on  previous  occasions  (i :  14, 16;  2 :  18,  27). 
The  numerous  diadems  on  his  head  are  an 
indication  of  his  royal  dignity,  while  for  an  age 
familiar  with  magic  the  secret  name  inscribed 
upon  him  would  guarantee  his  superior  power 
(2 :i7 ;  3 :  12).  In  calling  him  the  Logos  of  God 
probably  John  does  not  mean  to  disclose  the 
secret  name  previously  mentioned  but  rather  to 
give  an  additional  title  of  dignity  borne  by  the 
Messiah.  To  reveal  the  secret  name  would 
have  endangered  the  authority  of  its  possessor, 
a  thing  which  John  certainly  would  not  do. 
The  only  alternative  is  to  suppose  that  the 
reference  to  the  Logos  of  God  is  the  work  of  a 
later  scribe,  who,  through  his  familiarity  with 
the  Fourth  Gospel,  thought  himself  capable  of 
deciphering  the  secret  name.  In  favor  of  this 
supposition  is  the  fact  that  Logos  was  more 
appropriate  in  a  philosophical  estimate  of 
Christ's  significance  than  in  an  apocalyptic 
description  of  his  regal  and  military  supremacy. 
The  bloody  garment  is  also  typical  of  the  con- 
quering warrior,  who  slaughters  his  enemies 
even  as  grapes  are  crushed  in  the  winepress 
(i4:i9f.).  As  a  further  indication  of  his 
superior  authority  he  bears  the  title  King  of 
Kings  and  Lord  of  Lords. 


The  Final  Triumph 


363 


The  carnage  will  be  so  terrible  that  the 
carcasses  of  the  slain  will  Utter  the  ground  and 
become  food  for  all  the  birds  of  prey.  Despite 
the  overthrow  of  the  city  of  Rome  the  imperial 
beast  who  still  holds  sway  over  the  Empire 
(chap.  13)  will  assemble  his  armies  and  those 
of  his  subject-princes  to  fight  with  the  Messiah. 
But  only  the  emperor  and  the  chief  priest  of 
/  his  cult  are  to  be  saved  alive,  in  order  that  they 
may  be  consigned  to  a  more  terrible  fate  than 
death  itself  would  be.  They  are  to  be  thrown 
into  the  fiery  lake  of  burning  brimstone,  where 
they  will  be  tortured  throughout  eternity,  while 
the  Christian  saints  whom  they  have  slaugh- 
tered for  refusal  to  worship  the  emperor  will 
enjoy  a  season  of  millennial  bliss  in  company 
with  the  Messiah. 

ni.      THE   MILLENNIUM    (20:1-6) 

20:1        Again  I  saw  an  angel  descend  from  heaven 
with  the  key  of  the  abyss  and  a  great  chain  in  his 

2  hand.  He  seized  the  dragon,  the  ancient  serpent, 
who  is  the  devil  and  Satan,  and  binding  him  for 

3  a  thousand  years,  he  cast  him  into  the  abyss, 
closing  and  sealing  the  exit  over  him,  in  order 
tJtat  he  might  not  again  lead  astray  the  nations 
until  the  millennium  has  come  to  an  end.  After 
that  he  is  to  be  released  for  a  short  time. 


f 


^if 


'1 


3^4 


The  Revelation  of  John 


4  Also  I  saw  thrones  and  upon  them  sat  certain 
persons  who  were  permitted  to  execute  judgment. 
And  I  saw  the  souls  of  those  who  had  been  beheaded 
for  their  loyalty  to  the  testimony  of  Jesus  and  to 
the  word  of  God;  that  is,  those  who  worshiped 

^  neither  the  beast  nor  his  image  and  received  not 
his  mark  upon  their  forehead  or  their  hand. 
These  were  restored  to  life  and  ruled  in  company 

5  with  the  Messiah  a  thousand  years.  The  rest  of 
the  dead  were  not  restored  to  life  until  the  mil- 

6  lennium  had  passed.  This  is  the  first  resur- 
rection. Blessed  and  holy  are  all  who  participate 
in  the' first  resurrection,  for  they  are  immune  from 
the  sting  of  the  second  death,  and  they  will  be 
priests  of  God  and  of  the  Messiah  and  will  rule 
in  company  with  him  a  thousand  years. 

Previously  John  has  mentioned  the  abyss 
with  its  locked  passage  guarded  by  a  celestial 
being  (9:1  f.).  On  the  former  occasion  the 
abysmal  aperture  had  been  opened  to  permit 
the  exit  of  fiendish  locusts,  but  on  the  present 
occasion  the  entrance  is  imlocked  to  admit 
Satan.  For  a  thousand  years  he  is  to  remain 
imprisoned,  while  the  Messiah  and  his  martyred 
followers  dwell  happily  upon  earth.  Then 
Satan  will  be  temporarily  released  to  perform 
his  last  act  of  hostility  by  assembling  enemies 


\ 


The  Final  Triumph 


36s 


from  remote  regions  to  wage  war  against  the 
millennial  saints. 

The  belief  in  a  millennial  interregnum  is  a 
product  of  later  Jewish  apocalyptic  speculation. 
The  messianic  hope  of  earlier  times  had  pic- 
tured the  coming  of  the  day  when  the  earth 
would  be  purified  and  Israel  would  be  given  a 
glorious  and  permanent  national  restoration. 
But  when  this  national  hope  failed  of  fulfil- 
ment there  arose  a  belief  in  the  coming  of  a 
new  kingdom  to  descend  directly  from  heaven, 
thus  providing  a  suitable  home  for  all  the 
righteous.  The  distinguishing  feature  in  this 
later  form  of  belief,  commonly  called  the  apoca- 
lyptic hope,  was  not  the  renewal  of  Israel's 
earthly  glory  but  the  introduction  of  a  new 
celestial  regime  of  righteousness.'  Both  the 
national  kingdom  and  the  apocalyptic  king- 
dom as  originally  conceived  seem  to  have 
been  of  eternal  duration  and  hence  were 
mutually  exclusive.  But  certain  apocalyptists 
effected  a  compromise  between  these  two 
types  of  hope  by  predicting  a  temporary  rule 
of  the  Messiah  upon  earth  in  a  renewed 
Palestine  or  in  a  restored  Jerusalem  prior  to 

"  For  a  more  extended  discussion  of  these  forms  of  messianic 
hope  see  S.  J.  Case,  The  Millennial  Hope  (Chicago,  1918), 
pp.  69-98. 


i4? 

liiid 


M 


366 


The  Revelation  of  John 


the  enactment  of  a  final  judgment  and  the 
inauguration  of  a  new  cosmic  order.  The  author 
of  the  Secrets  of  Enoch  (32  :i  f.;  33 :  i  f.)  looked 
for  a  great  change  to  occur  six  thousand  years 
after  creation,  when  a  blissful  sabbath  of  one 
thousand  years  would  prevail  upon  earth  before 
the  present  world  came  to  an  end.  In  IV  Ezra 
(7 :  28-30)  the  temporary  messianic  kingdom  is 
expected  to  endure  four  hundred  years.  Still 
other  apocalyptic  writers,  who  made  no  attempt 
to  determine  the  exact  length  of  the  period, 
expected  the  establishment  of  a  messianic  inter- 
regnum upon  the  present  earth. 

John  follows  the  type  of  later  Jewish  think- 
ing which  blended  the  national  and  the  apoca- 
lyptic forms  of  hope.  He  predicted  a  temporary 
reign  of  the  Messiah  upon  earth  to  be  followed 
by  a  complete  overthrow  of  Satan  after  his 
release  and  a  final  enactment  of  judgment 
before  the  introduction  of  the  new  eternal  order 
from  heaven.  In  this  respect  Revelation  is 
unique  among  the  New  Testament  books. 
While  belief  in  Jesus  as  an  apocalyptic  Messiah 
was  common  among  New  Testament  writers, 
the  author  of  Revelation  is  the  only  one  who 
openly  espouses  the  contemporary  Jewish  idea 
of  a  millennial  interregnum.    In  this  connection 


The  Final  Triumph 


367 


he   alludes    somewhat   vaguely   to   judgment 

thrones,  an  item  which  apparently  reflects  the 

influence  of  the  language  of  Dan.  7:9.    As  yet, 

however,  there  is  no  one  upon  whom  judgment 

is  to  be  passed  unless  it  be  the  risen  martyrs, 

who  alone  are  to  share  the  privileges  of  the 

millennium.    They  only  have  part  in  the  first 

resurrection,  since  all  the  rest  of  the  dead,  both 

righteous  and  wicked  alike,  must  await  the 

time  of  the  final  judgment.    At  that  time  all 

sinners  will  be  cast  into  the  lake  of  fire,  which 

is  the  second  death   (2:11;  20:14),  but  the 

millennial  saints  are  immune  from  this  danger. 

Their  death  for  refusal  to  worship  the  emperor 

guarantees   their  future  bliss   throughout   all 

eternity. 

« 

IV.      THE  LAST  CONFLICT  AND  FINAL  JUDGMENT 

(20:7-15) 

10:7        At  the  close  of  the  millennium  Satan  will  he 

8  released  from  his  prison^  and  will  come  forth  to 
lead  astray  the  nations  situated  at  the  remote 
bounds  of  the  earth,  Gog  and  Magog,  assembling 
them  for  battle.    They  are  numerous  as  the  sands 

9  on  the  seashore,  and  coming  up  upon  the  broad 
plain  of  the  earth,  they  encircle  the  encampment 
of  the  saints,  even  the  beloved  city.     But  fire 


{■'M 


■1 


368 


The  Revelation  of  John 


10  descending  from  heaven  consumes  them  and  the 
devil  who  led  them  astray  is  cast  into  the  fiery 
lake  of  brimstone  where  the  beast  and  the  false 
prophet  were,  and  there  they  will  be  tormented 
day  and  night  throughout  eternity. 

11  Then  I  saw  a  great  white  throne  occupied  by 
one  from  whose  presence  both  the  earth  and  the  sky 
fled  so  far  away  that  they  were  nowhere  to  be 

12  found.  Also  I  saw  the  dead,  those  of  both  high 
and  low  degree,  standing  before  the  throne,  while 
books  of  doom  were  qpened.  Another  book,  which 
is  the  book  of  life,  was  also  opened.  Then  the 
dead  were  judged  according  to  their  deeds  as 

13  recorded  in  the  books.  The  sea  yielded  up  its 
dead  and  Death  and  Hades  liberated  their  dead, 
and  all  were  judged  according  to  their  deeds. 

14  Then  Death  and  Hades  were  cast  into  the  lake  of 
fire.    Punishment  in  the  lake  of  fire  is  the  second 

15  death,  and  if  anyone^ s  name  was  not  fownd 
recorded  in  the  book  of  life  that  person  was  cast 
into  the  lake  of  fire. 

The  release  of  Satan  from  the  abyss  intro- 
duces the  last  scene  in  the  final  conflict  with 
evil.  The  description  of  Satan's  final  effort  to 
assert  himself  is  a  favorite  theme  with  apoca- 
lyptic writers,  whose  imagery  is  freely  appro- 
priated by  John.    The  supporters  of  Satan  are 


The  Final  Triumph 


369 


also  traditional  mythical  enemies  of  Israel, 
which  were  to  be  gathered  from  the  remote  parts 
of  the  earth  for  final  conflict.  Probably  for 
John  the  most  immediate  source  of  this  idea  is 
Ezek.,  chaps.  38  f.,  but  the  development  of  the 
thought  in  later  Jewish  apocalyptic  is  also 
familiar  to  the  Christian  seer.  The  Sibylline 
Oracles  predict  a  time  when  "the  kings  of  the 
nations  shall  throw  themselves  against  this  land 
in  troops,  bringing  retribution  on  themselves 
....  in  a  ring  round  the  city  the  accursed 
kings  shall  place  each  one  his  throne  with  his 
infidel  people  by  him.  And  then  with  a  mighty 
voice  God  shall  speak  unto  all  the  undisciplined, 
empty-minded  people,  and  judgment  shall  come 
upon  them  from  the  mighty  God,  and  all  shall 
perish  at  the  hand  of  the  Eternal."'  So  John 
predicts,  not  only  the  destruction  of  the  heathen 
armies,  but  hkewise  the  final  overthrow  of  Satan. 
Also  in  his  description  of  the  final  judgment 
John  follows  the  conventional  lines  of  Jewish 
apocalyptic.  God  rather  than  the  Messiah  is 
represented  as  the  judge.  His  appearing  in 
regal  splendor  marks  the  end  of  the  present 
world,  for  both  earth  and  sky  vanish  before 
him.    Seated  upon  a  radiant  throne  he  executes 

« Sib.  Or.  iii.  663  ff . ;  see  also  I  En.  56 :  $-8. 


i  I M 


> 


370 


The  Revelation  of  John 


a  universal  judgment,  the  millennial  saints 
alone  being  exempt  from  this  ordeal.  It  was 
commonly  believed  that  an  accurate  record  of 
the  deeds  performed  both  by  the  wicked  and 
by  the  righteous  was  carefully  kept  in  heaven, 
to  be  consulted  on  the  day  of  judgment."  All 
persons  who  had  perished  by  drowning,  every- 
one who  had  died  in  the  more  usual  way,  having 
been  seized  by  the  fiendish  monsters  Death  and 
Hades  (6:8),  will  be  restored  to  life.  Similarly 
in  I  En.  51:1  it  is  said,  "In  those  days  shall 
the  earth  also  give  back  that  which  has  been 
entrusted  to  it,  and  Sheol  also  shall  give  back 
that  which  it  has  received,  and  hell  shall  give 
back  that  which  it  owes."  These  demons, 
Death  and  Hades,  together  with  all  the  dead 
whose  names  are  not  recorded  in  the  book  of 
life,  are  to  be  thrown  into  the  lake  of  eternal 
fire,  where  the  beast  and  his  priest  and  Satan 
are  aheady  receiving  their  punishment.  A 
general  resurrection  and  a  fiery  torment  for  the 
wicked  are  familiar  notions  of  Jewish  apoca- 
lyptic, which  John  freely  appropriates. 

'Mai.  3:16;  Dan.  7:10;  12:1;  I  En.  47:3;  81:4;  89:61-77; 
io:2o;  98:8;  IV  Ezra  6:20;  Bar.  24:1;  see  also  Rev.  3:5. 


The  Final  Triumph 

V.      THE  NEW  WORLD  (2 It  1-8) 


371 


21:1        Then  I  saw  a  new  sky  and  a  new  earth,  for 
the  former  sky  and  the  former  earth  had  vanished, 

2  and  the  sea  no  longer  exists.  And  I  saw  descend- 
ing  out  of  heaven  from  God  the  holy  city,  a  new 
Jerusalem,  prepared  as  a  bride  attired  for  her 

3  husband.  And  I  heard  a  great  voice  emanating 
from  the  throne  exclaim:  Behold  God's  abode  is 
with  men,  and  he  will  dwell  with  them,  and  they 
will  be  his  people;  even  God  himself  will  be  with 

4  them  and  he  will  dry  their  eyes  of  every  tear. 
There  will  be  no  more  death,  neither  weeping  nor 
lamentation  nor  pain  will  ever  occur  again.    The 

5  old  order  of  existence  has  come  to  an  end.  Then 
he  who  occupies  the  throne  said.  Behold  I  create 
all  things  anew.  Again  he  said.  Record  what 
I  am  about  to  tell  you,  for  these  words  are  true  and 

6  reliable.  Then  he  told  me:  All  things  have 
reached  completion;  I  am  the  Alpha  and  the 
Omega,  the  beginning  and  the  end.  I  will  permit 
the  thirsty  one  to  drink  without  cost  from  the 

7  fountain  of  living  water.  The  one  who  conquers 
will  inherit  these  privileges,  for  I  will  be  his  God 

8  and  he  will  be  my  son.  But  the  faint-hearted,  the 
unfaithful,  the  polluted,  the  murderers,  the  forni- 
cators, the  magicians,  the  idolaters,  and  all  kinds 


m 

<  ■?•■[ 

111 


I 


372 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Final  Triumph 


373 


1 


of  liars,  are  destined  for  the  fiery  lake  of  burning 
brimstone,  which  is  the  second  death. 

As  the  wicked  have  a  fitting  place  of  eternal 
torment  allotted  to  them,  so  the  righteous  are 
to  be  provided  with  a  new  abode  in  the  form 
of  a  new  world.  The  hope  of  world-renewal 
had  been  entertained  by  the  Jews  with  increas- 
ing insistence  ever  since  the  time  of  the  Baby- 
lonian exile.  But  among  apocalyptic  writers 
the  idea  of  renewal  had  been  gradually  dis- 
placed by  a  beUef  that  the  old  world  would 
disappear,  making  way  for  a  new  world,'  or  a 
new  Jerusalem — ^particularly  after  the  earthly 
city  was  destroyed  in  70  a.d. — to  be  let  down 
from  heaven.  The  Messiah  in  John's  picture 
is  already  on  earth,  where  he  has  dwelt  with 
the  saints  during  the  millennium,  and  now  John 
sees  the  new  Jerusalem  in  bridal  attire  ready  to 
come  to  the  messianic  bridegroom  (19:7).  Not 
only  does  John  see  a  vision  of  this  new  world, 
but  he  hears  words  of  positive  assurance  from 
God  himself  reiterating  promises  with  which 
the  reader  is  already  familiar  (i:8;2:7;7:i6f.). 
On  the  other  hand,  those  who  are  faint-hearted 
or  unfaithful  in  times  of  persecution  and  those 
who  are  defiled  by  sin  will  have  no  part  in  the 
new  order. 

'I  En.  45:4;  9o:28ff.;  Sib.  Or.  v.  420-33. 


VI.      THE  NEW  JERUSALEM  (21:9 — 22:$) 

21:9  Again  I  saw  one  of  the  seven  angels,  who  had 
the  seven  bowls  ftdl  of  the  seven  last  plagues,  and 
he  addressed  me  thus:  Come  let  me  show  you  the 

10  bride,  the  wife  of  the  Lamb.  And  he  carried  me 
away  in  the  Spirit  to  a  great  high  mountain, 
where  he  showed  me  the  holy  city  Jerusalem  de- 

11  scending  out  of  heaven  from  God,  and  possessing 
the  glory  of  God.  Its  radiance  resembled  that  of 
a  very  costly  gem,  stcch  as  a  crystal-like  jasper 

12  stone.  It  had  a  massive  and  high  wall  with  twelve 
gates,  at  which  twelve  angels  were  stationed,  and 
upon  which  were  inscribed  the  names  of  the 

13  twelve  tribes  of  the  children  of  Israel.  There  were 
three  gates  on  the  east,  three  gates  on  the  north, 
three  gates  on  the  south,  and  three  gates  on  the 

14  west.  The  wall  also  had  twelve  foundation  stones  ^ 
upon  which  were  the  twelve  names  of  the  twelve 
apostles  of  the  Lamb. 

15  And  he  who  was  speaking  with  me  had  a  gold 
measuring  reed  for  the  purpose  of  measuring  the 

16  city  and  its  gates  and  its  wall.  The  city  was  in 
the  form  of  a  square,  its  length  and  its  breadth 
being  the  same.  He  measured  the  city  with  the 
reed,  and  it  was  about  fifteen  hundred  miles,  its 

17  length  and  breadth  and  height  being  equal.  He 
also  measured  the  wall,  and  it  was  about  two 


11 


y 


374 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Final  Triumph 


375 


hundred  feet  high  according  to  man^s  way  of 
measuring^  which  was  the  standard  used  by  the 

1 8  angel.  The  wall  was  constructed  of  jasper,  hut  the 
city  was  of  transparent  gold  resembling  pure  glass. 

19  The  foundation  stones  of  the  city's  wall  were 
adorned  with  every  variety  of  costly  gem.  The 
first  foundation  stone  was  jasper,   the  second 

20  sapphire,  the  third  chalcedony,  the  fourth  emerald, 
the  fifth  sardonyx,  the  sixth  sardius,  the  seventh 
chrysolite,  the  eighth  beryl,  the  ninth  topaz,  the 
tenth  chrysoprase,  the  eleventh  jacinth,  the  twelfth 

21  amethyst.  The  twelve  gates  were  twelve  pearls, 
each  gate  being  composed  of  a  single  pearl,  while 
the  principal  street  of  the  city  was  of  pure  gold 
transparent  as  glass. 

22  However,  I  saw  no  temple  in  the  city,  for  the 
Lord  God  Almighty  and  the  Lamb  are  its  temple; 

23  nor  has  the  city  any  need  that  the  sun  or  the  moon 
should  shine  there,  for  the  glory  of  God  has 

24  illumined  it,  and  the  Lamb  is  its  light.  The 
nations  will  walk  in  its  light,  and  the  kings  of  the 

25  earth  will  bring  into  it  their  splendor.  Its  gates 
will  never  be  closed  during  any  part  of  the  day, 

26  for  night  will  never  be  known  there,  and  into  it 
will  be  brought  the  splendor  and  wealth  of  the 

27  nations.  But  nothing  unclean  will  ever  enter  it, 
nor  anyone  who  acts  abominably  or  tells  a  lie,  but 


only  those  whose  names  are  inscribed  in  the 
Lamb's  book  of  life. 
22:1        Also  he  showed  me  a  river  of  living  water 
sparkling  like  crystal,  which  issued  from  the 

2  throne  of  God  and  of  the  Lamb,  and  flowed  through 
the  middle  of  the  city's  principal  street.  Overhang- 
ing the  river  on  both  sides  was  the  tree  of  life,  which 
produced  twelve  kinds  of  fruit,  yielding  one  kind 
each  month,  and  the  leaves  of  the  tree  served  for 

3  the  healing  of  the  nations.  No  accursed  thing  will 
any  longer  exist.  But  the  throne  of  God  and  of 
the  Lamb  will  be  in  the  city,  and  his  servants  will 

4  render  him  worshipful  service,  beholding  his  face, 

5  and  his  name  will  be  on  their  foreheads.  Night 
will  no  longer  exist,  and  they  will  not  need  either 
light  of  a  lamp  or  light  of  a  sun,  for  the  Lord  God 
will  shine  upon  them  and  they  will  rule  through- 
out eternity. 

John's  visions  of  future  history  might  very 
fittingly  have  come  to  a  close  with  21:8.  At 
this  point  he  had  witnessed  the  estabUshment 
of  the  new  age  and  the  assignment  to  mortals 
of  eternal  pimishments  and  eternal  rewards. 
But  before  laying  aside  his  pen  he  supplements 
his  previous  revelation  with  a  lengthy  descrip- 
tion of  the  new  Jerusaleni.  This  information  is 
acquired  by  the  seer  in  a  special  vision  mediated 


■lli 


\  ^ 


i! 


^1 


1} 

'1 


i 


376 


The  Revelation  oj  John 


by  one  of  the  angels  who  had  previously  told 
him  of  the  seven  great  plagues  to  occur  during 
the  time  of  the  last  woe  (15:1). 

This  picture  of  the  new  Jerusalem  is  phrased 
in  language  derived  largely  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment and  later  Jewish  books  describing  the 
restored  Palestine  of  prophetic  expectation  and 
the  heavenly  city  of  apocalyptic  fancy.  For 
John,  however,  the  new  Jerusalem  is  no  longer 
merely  a  glorified  earthly  city,  but  is  a  purely 
heavenly  creation  to  descend  from  above.  In 
order  to  depict  its  great  magnificence  he 
employs  the  most  extravagant  language  of 
ancient  national  expectations,  the  most  vivid 
scenery  of  Jewish  apocalyptic  hopes,  and  the 
most  brilliant  phraseology  that  his  own  imagi- 
nation  could  devise.^  When  one  remembers 
that  in  all  probability  John  was  aiming  chiefly 
at  impressiveness,  his  language  is  easily  under- 
stood. Only  a  few  items  in  his  description  call 
for  interpretative  comment. 

In  the  measurement  of  the  city  it  is  not  clear 
whether  fifteen  hundred  miles  is  the  length  of 

'  For  Old  Testament  antecedents  see  especially  the  parallel 
ideas  in  Isa.  52:1;  60:3,  5,  11,  19  f.;  Ezek.  42:16-20;  44:9; 
47: 1-12;  48:31-35;  Zech.  14:7  f.  For  kindred  features  in  Jewish 
apocalyptic  writers  see  I  En.  25:4-6;  45:45.;  56:35.;  98:2flf.; 
105:1!.;  IV Ezra  7:26;  8:52;  10:27,43-54;  13:36;  Bar.  4:2-6; 
32:6;  57:2. 


The  Final  Triumph 


377 


each  side  or  of  all  four  sides  together.  Probably 
the  former  is  intended,  in  which  case  the  new 
city  would  cover  an  area  many  times  greater 
than  the  whole  of  Palestine,  which  embraced 
not  more  than  ten  thousand  square  miles.  That 
the  buildings  of  the  city  should  be  fifteen 
hundred  miles  high  might  at  first  sight  seem 
strange.  But  undoubtedly  the  seer  felt  no 
incongruity  in  supposing  that  in  the  new  age, 
when  men  would  be  like  angels,  it  would  be 
perfectly  easy  for  them  to  occupy  mansions 
extending  for  many  miles  above  the  level  of 
the  city's  streets.  By  remarking  that  the  angel 
used  the  standard  of  measurement  which  was 
commonly  employed  among  men,  John  gives 
his  readers  a  more  concrete  notion  of  the  size 
of  the  new  Jerusalem. 

A  few  items  in  the  description  are  incon- 
sistent with  certain  particulars  of  earlier  visions. 
In  the  present  picture  the  gentile  nations  and 
their  kings  voluntarily  submit  to  the  rule  of 
God  and  bring  their  wealth  into  the  new  city 
(21:24).  Healing  for  them  is  also  provided  by 
the  leaves  of  the  tree  of  life  (22:2).  On  the 
contrary  John's  previous  vision  of  the  divine 
triumph  (19:19-21;  20:15)  involved  the  com- 
plete destructipn  of  all  earth's  inhabitants,  the 


378 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Final  Triumph 


379 


saints  only  being  saved  alive  to  enjoy  future 
blessings.  The  gentile  nations  were  not  to  be 
healed  but  were  to  be  destroyed,  kings  and  their 
subjects  alike  being  cast  into  eternal  torment. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  the  utter  destruction  of  the 
Gentiles  is  normal  to  John's  own  point  of  view 
as  an  apocalyptist.  But  in  his  present  descrip- 
tion he  takes  over  certain  traditional  features 
originally  belonging  to  the  national  hope  of  a 
restored  and  glorified  Israel  dweUing  among 
gentile  peoples  who  would  willingly  submit  to 
Israel's  supremacy. 

Vn.      FINAL   INSTRUCTIONS   TO   JOHN    (22:6-17) 

22:6  Then  the  angel  said  to  me.  These  words  are 
true  and  reliable,  for  the  Lord  God  of  the 
spirits  of  the  prophets  sent  his  angel  to  disclose 

7  to  his  servants  events  which  must  soon  occur.  For 
behold  my  coming  is  at  hand.  Blessed  is  he  who 
lays  to  heart  the  words  of  the  prophecy  of  this  book. 

8  /  John  am  the  one  who  heard  and  saw  these 
revelations,  and  on  hearing  and  seeing  I  fell  down 
to  worship  at  the  feet  of  the  angel  who  disclosed 

9  these  things  to  me.  But  he  said  to  we,  Beware, 
stop  that,  for  I  am  a  fellow-servant  with  you,  and 
with  your  brother  prophets  and  with  those  who 
lay  to  heart  the  words  of  this  book;  worship  God. 


10  Then  he  said  to  me.  Do  not  seal  up  the  prophetic 
message  of  this  book,  for  the  time  of  its  fulfillment 

11  is  near.  Let  the  unrighteous  man  become  yet 
more  unrighteous,  and  he  who  is  defiled  become 
yet  more  defiled;  let  the  righteous  man  continue 
to  do  righteousness,  and  the  holy  man  continue  in 
his  holiness. 

12  Behold  my  coming  is  at  hand,  and  I  mete  out 
punishment  requiting  each  man  according  to  the 

13  character  of  his  deeds.  I  am  the  Alpha  and  the 
Omega,  the  first  and  the  last,  the  beginning  and 

14  the  end.  Blessed  are  they  who  wash  their  robes, 
for  they  will  be  permitted  access  to  the  tree  of  life, 

15  and  entrance  through  the  gates  into  the  city.  But 
the  heathen,  magicians,  adulterers,  murderers, 
idolators,  and  every  one  who  likes  or  tells  a  lie, 
will  be  shut  out. 

16  /,  Jesus,  sent  my  angel  to  give  you  this  message 
for  the  churches.  I  am  of  the  line  and  family  of 
David,  the  bright  morning  star. 

17  Both  the  Spirit  and  the  bride  say,  Come.  Let 
every  one  who  hears  the  reading  of  this  book  say, 
Come.  And  let  every  one  who  thirsts  come;  let 
every  one  who  desires,  receive  without  cost  the 

water  of  life. 

John's  visions  end  with  emphatic  assurances 
that  his  revelation  is  properly  authenticated 


38o 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Final  Triumph 


381 


and  that  the  events  which  it  forecasts  are  very 
soon  to  be  fulfilled.  Verses  6  and  7  are  essen- 
tially a  repetition  of  the  first  paragraph  of  the 
book  (1:1-3).  Undoubtedly  the  coming  one 
whose  early  advent  is  affirmed  is  the  Messiah 
(1:7;  3:3,  11;  16:15). 

Again,  as  in  19:10,  John  declares  that  the 
book  is  a  product  of  his  own  visions,  and  that  in 
his  capacity  as  a  Christian  prophet  he  stands 
on  a  level  with  the  angel  who  has  communicated 
to  him  this  heavenly  vision.  In  comparison 
with  the  alleged  methods  of  earlier  apocalyptic 
writers,  he  is  authorized  to  follow  a  new  course 
of  procedure.  It  was  assumed  that  his  prede- 
cessors, after  recording  their  visions,  had  sealed 
up  their  books  in  order  that  their  message 
might  not  become  known  until  a  later  day, 
when  the  events  predicted  were  about  to  occur 
(Dan.  8:26;  12:4,  9).  John,  however,  is  sure 
that  the  last  times  have  now  come.  Hence  his 
prophecies  are  not  to  be  sealed  up  for  use  by  a 
future  generation,  but  are  to  be  delivered 
directly  to  his  contemporaries.  So  near  is  the 
end  that  already  fates  are  practically  deter- 
mined, and  during  the  relatively  few  days  that 
remain  sinners  will  continue  in  wickedness, 
while  the  righteous  will  maintain  their  purity. 


It  is  not  perfectly  clear  whether  the  procla- 
mation of  verses  12-15  is  an  utterance  of  God  or 
of  the  Messiah.  The  terms,  the  Alpha  and  the 
Omega,  the  beginning  and  the  end,  have 
previously  been  used  of  God  (1:8;  21:6),  but 
the  Messiah  also  is  called  the  first  and  the  last 
(1:17;  2:8).  Probably  in  this  connection  John 
does  not  wish  to  discriminate  sharply  between 
the  work  of  God  and  of  the  Messiah,  but  rather 
is  stressing  the  certainty  of  the  climax  soon  to 
be  reached  by  their  co-operative  catastrophic 
intervention  in  the  affairs  of  the  decadent 
world.  The  promise  of  rewards  for  the  faithful 
and  the  exclusion  of  the  wicked  are  reiterations 
of  earlier  predictions  (21:8,  27).  Similarly  in 
verse  16  the  opening  sentence  of  the  book  (1:1) 
is  reaffirmed  in  the  declaration  that  John 
received  his  revelation  through  an  angelic 
mediator  whom  Jesus  selected  for  this  purpose. 

The  ecstatic  utterances  of  verse  17  stress 
the  nearness  of  the  end.  The  Spirit  by  which 
the  prophetic  seer  has  been  inspired,  and  the 
bride,  which  is  the  new  Jerusalem  in  personified 
form,  both  call  for  the  advent  of  the  Messiah. 
The  congregations  to  whom  the  book  is  to  be 
read  are  admonished  to  express  the  same  wish. 
And,   finally,   all  the  hearers  are  invited  to 


'J 


; 


»  ,■ 


382 


The  Revelation  of  John 


The  Final  Triumph 


383 


participate  in  the  blessings  now  on  the  point  of 
realization. 

Vni.   FINAL  EXHORTATION  TO  THE  READERS 

(22:18-21) 

22:18  /  assure  all  persons  in  whose  hearing  the 
prophetic  message  of  this  book  is  read,  that  if 
anyone  makes  additions  to  it,  God  will  impose 
19  upon  him  the  plagues  described  in  this  book,  and 
if  anyone  sets  aside  any  of  the  prophetic  teachings 
of  this  book,  God  will  deprive  him  of  his  part  in 
the  tree  of  life  and  in  -the  holy  city  which  are 
described  in  this  book. 

The  one  who  attests  this  message  says.  Indeed, 
my  coming  is  at  hand.    Verily,  Come,  Lord  Jesus, 

The  grace  of  the  Lord  Jesus  be  with  you  all. 

In  conclusion  John  addresses  a  few  words  of 
personal  instruction  to  his  readers.  So  thor- 
oughly convinced  is  he  of  the  accuracy  of  his 
revelation  that  he  beUeves  the  eternal  destiny 
of  his  contemporaries  will  be  determined  by  the 
attitude  which  they  take  toward  his  inter- 
pretation of  history.  Apparently  he  had  reason 
to  suspect  that  not  even  all  Christians  would 
readily  fall  into  line  with  his  notions  about  the 
early  end  of  the  world.    But  the  belief  in  an 


20 


21 


early  catastrophic  advent  of  the  Messiah  had 
taken  possession  of  the  seer  so  completely  that 
he  could  pronounce  unalterable  doom  upon  any 
one  who  would  venture  to  set  aside  or  revise 
his  predictions. 


CHAPTER  Vin 


If 

w 


TYPICAL  INTERPRETATIONS  OF 
REVELATION 

With  great  assurance  John  had  essayed  a 
prediction  of  coming  events.  He  was  certain 
that  God  would  presently  intervene  to  visit 
complete  destruction  upon  the  wicked  Roman 
Empire  in  punishment  for  its  persecution  of  the 
Christians.  With  all  the  mysterious  parapher- 
nalia of  an  apocalyptic  book,  yet  in  unmis- 
takable terms,  the  seer  had  interpreted  the 
events  of  his  own  day  under  Domitian  as  merely 
preliminary  to  an  early  acceleration  of  agonies 
to  cuhninate  in  the  Messiah's  catastrophic 
advent.  Domitian  was  to  be  succeeded  by  an 
emperor  whose  *'rule  must  be  brief"  and  then 
would  appear  the  beast  whose  activities  were  to 
continue  for  three  and  a  half  years  (lyiiof.; 
13 :  S).  While  the  beast  remained  in  power  the 
Roman  world  would  be  visited  by  terrible  dis- 
asters, to  reach  a  climax  in  the  complete  over- 
throw of  the  imperial  city  (chaps.  16-18).  Then 
the  beast  would  muster  his  armies  for  final 
conflict,  but  they  would  go  down  in  complete 
defeat  before  the  heavenly  Messiah  when  he 

384 


Typical  Interpretations  of  Revelation        385 


came  to  take  up  his  residence  for  a  thousand 
years  with  the  risen  martyrs  upon  a  renewed 
earth  (19:11 — 20:6). 

This  was  to  be  the  glorious  consummation 
of  history  as  predicted  by  John.  The  time  of  the 
end  was  not  specifically  determined,  but  its 
approximate  date  was  clearly  indicated.  Since 
the  book  was  written  during  the  last  decade 
of  the  first  century,  evidently  the  author 
expected  the  overthrow  of  Rome,  the  advent 
of  the  Messiah,  and  the  establishment  of  the 
millennium  early  in  the  second  century.  But 
century  after  century  passed,  leaving  John's 
expectations  unfulfilled.  The  Roman  imperial 
regime  maintained  its  undivided  sway  over  the 
Mediterranean  World  until  the  latter  part  of 
the  fifth  century,  and  the  city  of  Rome  itself 
remains  standing  even  down  to  the  present 
time.  History  also  proved  that  John's  hope  of 
the  Messiah's  early  coming  to  set  up  his  visible 
rule  upon  earth  was  not  to  be  realized.  In  the 
course  of  time  Christianity  triimiphed  over  its 
persecutors,  but  the  victory  was  secured  by  a 
long  and  tedious  process  quite  different  from 
that  predicted  in  the  pages  of  Revelation. 

Thus  the  historical  events  of  the  centuries 
following  the  writing  of  Revelation  made  it 


386 


The  Revelation  of  John 


^ 


practicaUy  impossible  for  Christians  of  succeed- 
ing generations  to  heed  John's  solemn  warning 
against  making  additions  to  or  setting  aside 
elements  of  that  prophetic  interpretation  of 
the  future  with  which  he  sought  to  comfort  the 
persecuted  Christians  of  Asia  (22:i8f.).    The 
pressure  of  the  persecution  which  had  prompted 
his  visions  ceased  with  the  death  of  Domitian 
m  96  A.D.,  and  time  so  quickly  rendered  impos- 
sible a  fulfilment  of  the  specific  forecast  of 
unpending  events  which  he  had  outlined  that 
the  original  meaning  of  the  book  early  became 
obscure.     In   consequence   of   this   obscurity 
various   notions,    quite   different   from    those 
originally  entertained  by  John,  have  been  read 
into  his  language  by  subsequent  interpreters. 
Probably  no  other  book  of  the  New  Testament 
has  offered  so  many  difficulties  to  its  readers 
or  inspired  so  many  divergent  notions  regarding 
its  author's  meaning.    A  sketch  of  the  typical 
methods  that  have  been  employed  from  time  to 
time  in  the  interpretation  of  the  book,  and  some 
observations  regarding  the  interests  prompting 
various  types  of  interpretation,  may  aid  the 
modern  reader  in  his  study  of  Revelation." 

« It  is  not  the  purpose  of  the  present  chapter  to  give  in  detail 
a  statistical  account  of  the  history  of  the  interpretation  of  Reve- 


Typical  Interpretations  of  Revelation        387 

I.      ANCIENT  INTERPRETATION 

It  is  no  longer  possible  to  know  exactly  how 
John's  book  was  received  by  the  Asian  churches 
to  which  it  was  addressed.  Doubtless  some  of 
their  number  accepted  the  words  of  the  seer  as 
truly  prophetic  of  an  early  catastrophic  deliver- 
ance from  their  troubles,  while  others  may 
have  thought  that  the  hostility  of  the  Roman 
authorities  would  have  to  be  overcome  by  a 
more  gradual  and  more  conciliatory  method 
of  procedure.  Yet  the  book  was  found  suffi- 
ciently interesting  to  be  preserved,  and  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  second  century,  when  an 
authoritative  collection  of  New  Testament 
writings  was  brought  together.  Revelation  was 
given  a  place  in  the  group  on  the  assumption 
that  its  author  was  the  apostle  John. 

The  first  explicit  approval  of  the  book  comes 
from  Justin,  a  Christian  of  Rome  who  suffered 
a  martyr's  death  soon  after  160  a.d.  To  use 
his  own  language,  "there  was  a  certain  man 
with  us  whose  name  was  John,   one  of  the 


lation,  but  only  to  note  typical  methods  and  different  interests 
underlying  these  methods.  Readers  who  wish  a  more  extensive 
discussion  of  the  subject  may  consult  R.  H.  Charles,  Studies  in 
the  Apocalypse  (Edinburgh,  1913),  pp.  1-78;  or  the  still  more 
elaborate  treatment  in  W.  Bousset,  Die  OJfenbarung  Johannis 
(Gottingen,  1906),  pp.  49^119. 


388 


The  Revelation  of  John 


apostles  of  Christ,  who  prophesied  by  a  revela- 
tion that  was  made  to  him  that  those  who 
believed  in  our  Christ  would  dwell  a  thousand 
years  in  Jerusalem,  and  that  thereafter  the 
general,  and  in  short  the  eternal  resurrection 
and  judgment  of  all  men  would  likewise  take 
place."'  But  Justin  knows  many  Christians 
*'who  belong  to  the  pure  and  pious  faith  and 
are  true  Christians,""  who  reject  the  views  of 
Revelation  regarding  the  millennium. 

In  certain  Christian  circles  the  Book  of 
Revelation  continued  to  be  regarded  in  an 
imfavorable  light  during  the  second  and  third 
centuries.  The  ecstatic  Christian  movement 
known  as  Montanism,  which  arose  in  Phrygia 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  second  century, 
entertained  in  a  greatly  exaggerated  form  John's 
contempt  for  the  present  world.  Advocates  of 
the  movement  also  predicted  the  early  end 
of  the  world  to  be  followed  inmiediately  by 
the  establishment  of  Christ's  millennial  reign. 
Montanism  proved  imacceptable  to  the  majority 
of  Christendom,  and  in  some  quarters  this  dis- 
favor carried  with  it  a  strong  prejudice  against 
Revelation.  The  most  extreme  opponents  of 
Montanism  are  known  as  the  Alogi,  who  not 


^Dial.  8i.  4;  see  also  80.  $. 


» Did.  80.  2. 


Typical  Interpretations  of  Revelation        389 

only  rejected  millenarian  teachings  but  also 
set  aside  Revelation  as  unworthy  of  consider- 
ation by  Christians.  In  general,  however, 
Christianity  retained  the  book  among  its 
authoritative  writings,  giving  it  an  established 
position  in  the  New  Testament  canon.  Once 
it  acquired  this  distinction,  the  work  of  inter- 
pretation was  imperative. 

Since  the  formal  task  of  interpretation  was 
not  imdertaken  until  nearly  a  hundred  years 
after  John's  day,  the  causes  which  prompted 
him  to  write  had  long  ago  passed  out  of  memory. 
In  fact  changes  of  circumstances  and  the  pas- 
sage of  time  had  rendered  quite  unintelligible 
his  specific  scheme  of  future  events,  which  were 
to  culminate  in  the  end  of  the  world  early  in 
the  second  century.  But  until  within  com- 
paratively recent  times  the  expounders  of  the 
New  Testament  writings  have  not  been  critical 
students  of  history,  and  consequently  they  have 
not  been  especially  interested  in  John's  original 
meaning,  which  could  be  learned  only  by  a 
process  of  scientific  historical  investigation  into 
the  circumstances  under  which  John  lived.  In 
the  absence  of  such  knowledge,  and  in  an  age 
which  had  little  if  any  interest  in  this  type  of 
historical  research,  it  was  perfectly  easy  for 


: 


390 


The  Revelation  of  John 


l< 


*' 


each  new  generation  of  Christians  to  assume 
that  the  author  of  Revelation  had  in  mind  just 
those  ideas  and  interests  that  were  uppermost 
in  the  minds  of  later  generations.  Under  these 
circumstances  it  was  inevitable  that  a  great 
variety  of  interpretative  opinion  should  gather 
about  the  Book  of  Revelation  during  the  course 
of  the  centuries. 

While  Christians  continued  to  be  persecuted 
by  the  Roman  imperial  authorities,  there  were 
strong  incentives  for  regarding  Revelation  as  a 
prophecy  of  events  still  awaiting  fulfilment. 
Readers  were  no  longer  aware  of  the  original 
cu-cumstances  of  the  author,  nor  did  they  realize 
that  his  program  had  called  for  the  catastrophic 
advent  of  Christ  almost  a  century  before  inter- 
preters began  the  formal  process  of  expounding 
the  book.  Without  regard  to  its  historical 
relationships  later  readers  applied  its  language 
as  best  they  could  to  their  own  pecuUar 
cu-cumstances.  Under  the  stress  of  con- 
tinued persecution  they  found  in  it  sup- 
port for  beHef  in  the  coming  of  the  day 
when  an  archenemy  of  Christianity,  commonly 
called   the   Antichrist,    would    appear,'    after 

« Though  not  mentioned  in  Revelation,  this  name  appears  in 
I  John  2:18,  22;  4:3;  n  John,  vs.  7;  cf.  II  Thess.  2:3  f. 


Typical  Interpretations  of  Revelation       391 

which  Christ  would  return  to  establish   the 
millennium. 

The  habit  of  regarding  Revelation  as  pre- 
dictive of  a  catastrophic  triumph  for  Chris- 
tianity in  the  more  or  less  distant  future 
continued  to  prevail,  particularly  in  the  western 
Mediterranean  World,  down  to  the  time  of 
Constantine.  But  this  emperor's  toleration  of 
the  new  religion  and  its  gradual  rise  to  a  posi- 
tion of  privilege  in  the  Empire  eliminated  the 
desire  either  for  a  violent  overthrow  of  Rome 
or  for  a  sudden  end  of  the  present  world.  This 
turn  of  events  necessitated  a  new  type  of 
exegesis.  As  distinguished  from  the  futuristic 
type  which  had  flourished  while  Rome  was 
antagonistic  to  Christianity,  there  arose  a  new 
method  of  interpretation,  commonly  termed  the 
allegorical  or  spiritual. 

The  beginnings  of  the  allegorical  exposition 
of  Revelation  are  found  among  the  Christians 
of  Alexandria  even  as  early  as  the  close  of  the 
second  century.  No  formal  commentary  on  the 
book  appeared  at  that  early  date,  but  Clement 
of  Alexandria  and  Origen  interpreted  its 
language  in  a  distinctly  allegorical  manner.  Its 
statements  were  not  taken  literally  but  were 
thought  to  have  a  purely  figurative  meaning. 


392 


The  Revelation  oj  John 


*■«•■■ 


For  example,  Clement  said  that  the  twenty- 
four  dignitaries  whom  John  saw  in  heaven 
enthroned  in  God's  presence  (4:4)  were  to  be 
imderstood  as  a  symbolic  indication  that  within 
the  church  both  Jews  and  Greeks,  twelve  being 
the  sacred  symbol  for  each,  are  equal  before 
God.  Origen  is  still  more  thoroughgoing  in  his 
application  of  the  allegorical  method  to  the 
language  of  Revelation.  He  ridiculed  the  idea 
of  a  Uteral  establishment  of  the  new  Jerusalem 
upon  earth,  and  insisted  that  the  notion  of 
Christ's  return  is  to  be  understood  in  a  purely 
figurative  and  spiritual  sense. 

The  first  formal  commentary  on  Revelation 
to  make  extensive  use  of  the  allegorical  method 
was  written  by  Ticonius,  who  flourished  about 
380  A.D.  He  belonged  to  that  rigorous  sect  of 
Christianity  known  as  the  Donatists,  who 
vigorously  protested  against  the  secularization 
of  the  faith  which  went  on  imder  Constantine 
and  his  successors.  Although  Ticonius  expected 
the  Uteral  return  of  Christ  at  an  early  date, 
John's  descriptions  of  future  distress  were  taken 
allegorically  as  references  to  the  conflict  between 
good  and  evil  in  general.  So  throughout  Reve- 
lation Ticonius  detected  behind  specific  names 
and  incidents  a  general  spiritual  teaching  re- 


Typkal  Interpretations  oj  Revelation        393 

garding  events  of  his  own  day,  while  the  his- 
torical happenings  of  John's  time  were  lightly 
passed  by  or  utterly  ignored. 

Early  in  the  fifth  century  the  allegorical 
method  of  interpreting  Revelation  was  standard- 
ized by  Augustine.'  He  took  no  account  of  the 
actual  situation  of  John  and  his  readers,  and 
the  vivid  future  predictions  of  the  book  were 
consistently  spiritualized.  Its  specific  prophe- 
cies of  Christ's  advent  were  explained  to  mean 
that  his  coming  "continually  occurs  in  his 
church,  that  is  in  his  members,  in  which  he 
comes  little  by  little  and  piece  by  piece,  since 
the  whole  church  is  his  body."  The  millennium 
predicted  in  Rev.  20: 5  f.  was  also  allegorized  by 
identifying  it  with  that  period  of  Christian 
history  which  began  when  Jesus  bound  the 
strong  man,  Satan  (Mark  3:27).  Since  Chris- 
tianity in  Augustine's  day  had  ceased  to  be 
persecuted  and  had  become  the  favored  religion 
of  the  state,  he  could  not  accept  John's  notion 
regarding  the  Satanic  character  of  the  Roman 
imperial  regime.  Therefore  the  sphere  of 
Satan's  activities  was  found  in  the  wicked  pagan 
multitudes  who  refused  to  accept  Christianity. 
Their   hearts   constituted   for   Augustine   the 

'  City  of  God,  xx. 


394 


The  Revelation  of  John 


abysmal  pit  to  which  John  had  consigned  Satan 
during  the  thousand  years  of  Christ's  rule  upon 
earth.  Thus  the  present  church  was  the  true 
city  of  God  wherein  the  saints  reigned.  With 
the  passing  of  the  years  this  new  heavenly 
kingdom  was  to  increase  "until  we  come  to 
that  most  peaceful  kingdom  in  which  we  shall 
reign  without  an  enemy,  and  it  is  of  this  first 
resurrection  in  the  present  life  that  the  Revela- 
tion speaks." 

Augustine's  thoroughgoing  allegorization  of 
Revelation  was  followed  with  scarcely  any 
deviation  for  more  than  five  hundred  years. 
The  church  felt  itself  so  well  established  in  the 
world  and  its  political  status  was  so  secure  that 
it  had  no  sympathy  with,  and  no  power  to 
appreciate,  John's  ardent  desire  for  an  early  end 
of  the  world.  Nor  did  his  tirade  against  the 
evil  political  order  of  his  time  have  any  meaning 
for  these  later  readers,  surrounded  as  they  were 
by  a  very  diflferent  set  of  circumstances.  If 
they  were  to  read  the  Book  of  Revelation  at  all 
its  prophecies  of  impending  afflictions  could  not 
be  imderstood  as  referring  to  concrete  historical 
events  to  be  actually  experienced  by  Christians. 
On  the  contrary,  Christianity  was  now  in  the 
ascendancy.     Therefore  John's  predictions  of 


Typical  Interpretations  oj  Revelation        395 

bitter  conflict  between  the  imperial  Satanic 
beast  and  the  struggling  Christian  movement 
were  freely  allegorized  into  a  breach  between 
the  community  of  unbelievers  on  the  one  hand 
and  the  faithful  people  of  God  on  the  other. 
Also  the  millennial  triumph  of  Christianity  as 
proclaimed  by  John  was  now  thought  to  be 
already  in  process  of  realization. 

n.     TRADITIONAL  PROTESTANT  INTERPRETATION 

The  comparative  satisfaction  which  the 
church  felt  with  its  status  in  the  present  world 
prevailed  from  the  time  of  Augustine  down  to 
the  rise  of  the  reforming  monastic  orders  and 
the  beginnings  of  the  Protestant  movements. 
In  the  meantime .  Revelation  was  commonly 
interpreted  by  the  allegorical  method.  But  the 
unrest  which  manifested  itself  in  various  sec- 
tions of  Christianity  durmg  the  thirteenth, 
fourteenth,  and  fifteenth  centuries  led  to  a 
revival  of  interest  in  Revelation  as  a  prophetic 
book  in  which  the  disturbing  events  of  these 
later  times  were  seen  foreshadowed.  Awaken- 
ing discontent  with  the  established  church 
aroused  a  suspicion  that  Christianity  was  on  the 
decline.  John's  prophecies  of  a  catastrophic  in- 
tervention by  God  to  destroy  evil  and  estabUsh 


% 


30 


The  Revelatimi  of  John 


ta| 


a  new  order  were  revived,  and  the  signs  of 
the  end  which  he  had  foretold  were  thought  to 
find  fulfilment  in  the  events  of  these  later  days. 
Thus  the  futuristic  interpretation  of  Revelation 
once  more  gained  in  favor  at  the  expense  of  the 
allegorical,  though  frequently  the  two  methods 
were  combined  according  to  the  convenience  of 
the  individual  commentator. 

The  more  extreme  critics  of  the  established 
church  affirmed  not  only  that  Christianity  was 
on  the  decline  and  that  the  times  were  growing 
more  evil  in  anticipation  of  the  end,  but  that 
the  very  church  itself  was  an  agent  of  Satan. 
Among  Protestants  it  was  customary  to  believe 
that  the  beast  described  by  John  was  none 
other  than  the  occupants  of  the  papal  see  or 
some  particular  pope.  On  the  other  hand 
Roman  Catholics,  arguing  in  a  similar  manner, 
freely  identified  their  opponents  with  the  Anti- 
christ. When  a  pope  and  an  emperor  quarreled 
each  could  pronounce  the  other  to  be  the 
Antichrist  beast.  Or,  again,  when  Christian 
preachers  sought  to  awaken  interest  in  the 
Crusades  the  Saracens  were  identified  with  the 
beast,  while  Mohammed  himself  was  called 
the  false  prophet,  whose  coming  was  foretold 
in  Rev.,  chap.  13.     When  this  general  type  of 


Typical  Interpretations  of  Revelation       397 

interpretation  gained  currency  it  produced  a 
great  abundance  of  fanciful  expositions  limited 
only  by  the  interpreter's  skill  at  finding  in  the 
events  of  his  own  time  fulfilments  of  supposed 
prophecies  of  Revelation.  John's  own  circum- 
stances were  entirely  ignored,  while  it  was 
naively  assumed  that  he  had  indulged  in  the 
same  wild  fancies  that  were  entertained  by 
these  later  commentators. 

Still  other  interpreters  who  employed  the 
futuristic  method  placed  somewhat  less 
emphasis  upon  John's  prophecies  of  events 
contemporary  with  their  own  time  but  found 
in  his  book  a  forecast  of  the  entire  course 
of  Christianity's  history,  if  not,  indeed,  an 
epitome  of  the  history  of  the  world.  This  was 
the  view  of  Luther,  through  whose  influence 
this  type  of  exposition  gained  wide  currency  in 
Protestant  circles.  He  took  the  letters  to  the 
seven  churches  as  actual  messages  of  exhorta- 
tion to  Christian  communities  of  John's  own 
day,  but  in  the  seven  seals  he  saw  types  of 
distress  which  the  church  had  experienced 
during  the  general  course  of  its  career.  The 
troubles  introduced  by  the  seven  trumpets  were 
said  to  be  prophetic  forecasts  of  various  heresies, 
and  the  sixth  triunpet  was  regarded  as  a  specific 


398 


The  Revelation  of  John 


reference  to  Mohammedanism.  The  angel  de- 
scribed in  Rev.,  chap.  lo,  was  identified  with 
the  papacy,  while  the  beasts  of  chapter  13 
were  explained  as  the  papacy  and  the  imperial 
German  power  who  were  in  league  against 
Luther.  The  prophecy  regarding  Gog  and 
Magog,  whose  advent  was  to  follow  the  millen- 
nium (20:8),  was  said  to  find  its  fulfilment  in 
the  appearing  of  the  Turks  upon  the  scene  one 
thousand  years  after  the  time  of  John. 

Following  Luther,  traditional  Protestant 
thinking  has  often  treated  Revelation  as  a 
prophetic  epitome  of  church  history.  But  in 
certain  circles  interest  has  centered  more 
particularly  upon  John's  forecast  of  the  end  of 
the  world,  each  interpreter  finding  in  the  events 
of  his  own  day  supposed  fulfilments  of  the 
premonitory  signs  presaging  the  early  return  of 
Christ.'  Periods  of  social  or  poUtical  unrest 
have  often  been  appealed  to  with  great  assur- 
ance as  indicating  a  fulfilment  of  John's  pre- 
dictions of  tribulations  to  precede  the  end.  The 
persecution  of  the  Huguenots  in  France  in  the 
seventeenth  century,   the  poUtical  unrest  in 

« Among  the  most  influential  commentaries  of  this  type  are 
J.  A.  Bengel,  Erkldrte  OJfenbarung  Johannis  (Stuttgart,  1740). 
and  H.  Alford's  exposition  of  Revelation  in  his  Greek  Testament 
(Cambridge,  1861). 


Typical  Interpretations  of  Revelation        399 

England  in  the  time  of  Cromwell,  the  distresses 
in  all  Europe  resulting  from  the  Napoleonic 
wars,  and  the  calamities  attending  the  recent 
world- war  of  1914-18  are  examples  of  events 
which  from  time  to  time  have  stimulated  fresh 
interest  in  Revelation.  Each  age  has  seen  in 
the  book  specific  prophecies  of  the  happenings 
of  its  own  time,  and  on  the  strength  of  these 
fulfilments  of  John's  predictions  each  successive 
generation  of  interpreters  has  confidently  de- 
clared that  the  end  of  the  world  and  the 
inauguration  of  the  millennium  were  at  hand. 
But  time  has  always  falsified  their  predictions 
and  disappointed  their  hopes. 

Still  other  interpreters  in  more  recent  times 
have  resorted  to  a  more  purely  allegorical 
method.  Denying  that  John  had  in  mind 
specific  events  of  future  history,  they  find  in 
his  pages  only  a  symbolic  representation  of  the 
conflict  between  good  and  evil  in  general.  His 
prophecy  of  a  final  triumph  for  the  righteous  is 
identified  with  a  gradual  process  of  spiritual 
growth  to  be  effected  by  a  perpetuation  of 
Christian  ideals  in  the  present  world.  These 
interpreters  insist  that  John's  language,  which 
on  first  sight  seems  to  be  so  emphatically 
specific  and  local  in  its  intention,  should  really 


400 


The  Revelation  of  John 


i 


be  taken  in  a  purely  figurative  and  universal 
sense.  John  did  not  mean  to  describe  specific 
incidents,  but  deliberately  used  his  concrete 
imagery  to  portray  great  spiritual  principles, 
which  it  is  the  business  of  the  modern  inter- 
preter to  discover.  Thus  the  allegorical  method 
of  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Origen,  and  Augus- 
tine is  perpetuated  in  modern  times.' 

m.      MODERN  HISTORICAL  INTERPRETATION 

Interest  in  strictly  historical  study  came  to 
the  fore  during  the  nineteenth  century  and  led 
to  a  distinctly  new  method  of  interpreting 
Revelation.  The  primary  aim  of  this  method  is 
to  expound  the  book  in  the  light  of  the  circum- 
stances out  of  which  it  came.  The  task  of 
interpretation  is  to  determine  what  the  language 
of  Revelation  meant  to  the  author  himself  and 
to  his  Christian  contemporaries  of  Asia  in  view 
of  the  experiences  through  which  they  were 
passing  when  the  book  was  written. 

John's  situation  furnishes  the  point  of 
departure  for  historical  interpretation  of  his 
book,  and  to  ascertain  the  content  of  his  mes- 
sage to  his  contemporaries  is  the  interpreter's 

» Typical  representatives  of  this  school  are  W.  Milligan, 
The  Book  of  Revelation  (London,  1889),  and  E.  W.  Benson,  The 
Apocalypse  (London,  iQoo). 


Typical  Interpretations  of  Revelation        401 

task.  But  the  fulfilment  of  this  task  neces- 
sitates several  lines  of  inquiry  which  have 
variously  engaged  the  attention  of  modem 
students.  The  poUtical  situation  which  involved 
the  Christians  in  persecution  for  their  refusal 
to  worship  the  emperor  is  the  primary  fact 
taken  into  account  by  all  exponents  of  the 
historical  method  in  their  study  of  Revelation. 
In  varying  degrees,  however,  they  also  give 
attention  to  the  Uterary  process  which  pro- 
duced the  book.  It  is  recognized  as  belonging 
to  a  specific  type  of  literature  known  as  apoca- 
lypse and  is  interpreted  by  the  same  general 
principles  used  in  the  exposition  of  other 
apocalyptic  writings. 

Since  most  other  apocalypses  are  composite 
works,  combining  earlier  and  more  fragmentary 
written  sources,  numerous  hypotheses  had  been 
advanced  to  prove  the  composite  character  of 
John's  Revelation.  Some  students  have  ana- 
lyzed the  book  into  several  different  component 
parts.  Still  others  have  favored  the  theory  of 
a  more  strictly  redactional  process  by  which  an 
original  document  was  enlarged  by  John.  But 
the  majority  of  historical  interpreters  incline 
to  the  opinion  that  the  book  is  mainly  John's 
own  composition,  although  he  may  often  have 


402 


The  Revelation  of  John 


appropriated  from  tradition  a  number  of  apoca- 
lyptic fragments,  written  or  oral  in  form,  which 
sometimes  occasion  inconsistencies  in  his  narra- 
tive. That  he  also  drew  extensively  upon 
current  Jewish  apocalyptic  imagery  and  occa- 
sionally appropriated  striking  features  of  gen- 
tile mythological  fancy  is  also  believed  in 
many  quarters. 

Historical  interpretation  is  based  upon  a 
recognition  of  all  the  complex  phenomena 
relating  to  the  production  of  apocalypses  in 
general  and  of  John's  apocalypse  in  particular. 
The  peculiar  psychological  processes  of  the  seer, 
his  characteristic  literary  methods,  and  his 
reaction  toward  his  immediate  environment 
thus  become  determinative  for  the  under- 
standing of  his  book.'  Inherited  elements  taken 
over  from  tradition  are  not  always  intelligible 
imless  viewed  in  the  light  of  their  origin.  For 
this  reason  the  interpreter  may  sometimes 
resort  to  a  study  of  John's  sources,  but  his 
main  concern  is  simply  with  the  meaning  which 
John  attached  to  appropriated  materials  and 
the  import  of  John's  own  language.  The  con- 
trolling aim  of  the  modern  historical  school  is 

« On  the  forces  which  went  into  the  making  of  an  apocalypse 
see  above,  pp.  i2sff. 


Typical  Interpretations  of  Revelation        403 

to  ascertain  the  meaning  which  John  intended 
his  book  to  have  for  the  particular  readers 
whom  he  addressed.  In  order  to  accompUsh 
this  purpose  the  interpreter  orients  himself 
thoroughly  in  the  specific  historical  situation 
of  John  and  his  contemporaries,  thus  learning 
to  read  Revelation  with  their  eyes  and  from  the 
point  of  view  of  their  immediate  interests. 

The  foregoing  sketch  of  typical  methods 
employed  in  the  interpretation  of  Revelation 
exhibits  three  main  tendencies.  The  first  has 
been  termed  the  futuristic,  since  it  assumes  that 
John  had  primarily  in  mind  events  that  were 
still  future  for  each  successive  generation  of 
interpreters.  As  time  passed  and  the  predic- 
tions which  he  made  with  reference  to  his  own 
situation  failed  to  be  fulfilled,  the  hopes  of  a 
later  age  were  arbitrarily  read  into  his  language, 
and  the  meaning  of  his  imagery  was  altered  to 
suit  these  forced  interpretations  of  subsequent 
times.  In  the  form  in  which  this  method  is 
commonly  employed  today,  John's  anxiety 
about  his  fellow-sufferers  in  Asia  is  entirely 
ignored,  or  else  it  must  be  assumed  that  he 
hoped  to  reUeve  their  anxiety  by  a  promise  of 
divine  interference  in  the  affairs  of  the  world 


404 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Typical  Interpretations  of  Revelation       405 


to  occur  some  thousands  of  years  later.  But  it 
is  quite  inconceivable  that  he  could  have  hoped 
to  comfort  his  afflicted  brethren  of  Asia  with  a 
prophecy  about  the  end  of  the  world  to  occur 
in  the  twentieth  century — ^if  indeed  it  is  to 
occur  at  even  that  early  a  date.  By  this  method 
of  exposition  John's  references  to  worship  of 
the  imperial  beast,  his  prophecies  of  the  early 
overthrow  of  the  Roman  Empire,  his  expecta- 
tion of  the  speedy  coming  of  Christ,  and  other 
vivid  featiures  in  his  description  have  all  to  be 
either  greatly  distorted  or  tacitly  ignored.  Each 
new  generation  must  read  a  new  meaning  into 
John's  words  in  order  that  they  may  be  applied 
to  new  conditions  of  which  they  are  assumed 
to  be  predictions.  Naturally  this  method  of 
pla3dng  fast  and  loose  with  a  historical  docu- 
ment no  longer  appeals  to  serious  students. 

The  allegorical  type  of  interpretation  is  also 
inadequate.  Its  chief  defect  lies  in  ignoring 
John's  concern  with  contemporary  events  and 
in  its  subjective  method  of  reading  hidden 
meanings  into  his  language.  John  becomes  an 
exponent  of  glittering  generalities.  His  concrete 
imagery  does  not  refer  to  definite  events  of  past 
or  future  history,  but  is  only  a  device  for 
expressing  general   principles  underlying   the 


spiritual  order.  Accordingly  his  predictions  of 
Christ's  advent  must  refer  to  a  spiritual  coming 
to  be  realized  within  the  inner  experiences  of 
beUevers,  and  the  vision  of  the  new  Jerusalem 
is  simply  a  strange  way  of  predicting  the  gradual 
triumph  of  the  church  throughout  the  course  of 
the  centuries. 

Thus  also  in  this  method  of  interpretation 
the  seer  stands  quite  aloof  from  the  storm  and 
stress  of  the  events  of  his  own  day.  He  is 
made  to  view  history  with  the  eyes  of  sub- 
sequent generations,  while  he  has  no  immediate 
concern  with  the  affairs  of  his  contemporaries. 
While  the  futuristic  method  of  interpretation 
makes  John  deal  specifically  in  coming  events 
of  an  age  far  removed  from  his  own,  the  alle- 
gorical method  ascribes  to  him  a  message  so 
abstract  and  unrelated  to  specific  historical 
incidents  that  it  can  be  suited  to  the  conditions 
of  any  age.  Both  alike  do  violence  to  John's 
message  by  ignoring  the  real  and  concrete  ele- 
ments which  alone  furnished  the  occasion  for 
his  book  and  which  gave  it  value  for  the  author 
and  his  first  readers. 

The  historical  method  alone  does  justice  to 
John  and  his  Asian  contemporaries.  It  is  able 
to  hear  him  speak  the  language  of  his  time  and 


ii*^ 


4o6 


The  Revelation  of  John 


to  perceive  his  meaning  as  understood  by  the 
people  of  that  day.    It  recognizes  that  he  meant 
what  he  said  when  he  predicted  the  early  de- 
struction of  the  Roman  Empire,  and  it  readily 
understands    the    impelling    motives    which 
prompted    him    to    utter    such    a   prophecy. 
Similarly  appropriate  to  his  situation  are  his 
predictions  of  a  catastrophic  end  of  the  world 
and  his  expectation  of  Christ's  early  return 
after  only  two  more  emperors  had  ruled.   These 
realistic  phases  of  John's  thinking  can  be  appre- 
ciated only  by  one  who  employs  the  historical 
method,  learning  to  read  John's  language  in  the 
Ught  of  hopes  and  experiences  peculiar  to  that 
age.   His  apocalyptic  imagery  can  then  be  given 
the  meaning  that  it  had  in  ancient  times  as 
illustrated  in  the  typical  apocalyptic  writings  of 
the  period.    With  this  method  in  hand  the  long- 
misunderstood    mysteries    of    Revelation    are 

easily  solved. 

To  be  sure,  the  specific  events  predicted  by 
John  did  not  come  to  pass,  and  Christianity 
attained  its  victory  over  the  Roman  world  by  a 
much  more  gradual  and  much  less  spectacular 
process  than  he  had  anticipated.  Nevertheless, 
his  book  aimed  to  serve  a  very  real  need  of  his 
day,  and  it  attests  on  every  page  the  author's 


Typical  Interpretations  oj  Revelation        407 

sincerity  and  devotion  to  the  cause  which  he 
so  loyally  supported.  In  an  hour  when  small 
and  helpless  groups  of  Christians  were  being 
threatened  by  the  haughty  Roman  authorities 
John  rose  to  the  occasion,  painting  in  bold 
imagery  just  that  type  of  triumph  for  Chris- 
tianity which  seemed  adequate  to  him  and  his 
like-minded  contemporaries. 

John's  extravagant  imagery  is  no  longer 
capable  of  making  a  strong  religious  appeal  to 
twentieth-century  readers,  for  the  language  of 
religion  has  greatly  changed  since  his  day. 
But  John  may  still  be  appreciated  even  though 
his  fancy  moved  in  a  world  so  foreign  to 
moderns.  His  book  may  still  be  read  with  great 
profit  by  one  who  has  eyes  to  see  behind  its 
extravagant  language  the  soul  of  an  early  Chris- 
tian who  will  ever  be  an  inspiring  example 
of  loyalty  in  the  hour  of  testing.  And  his 
contagious  faith  in  the  triumph  of  righteousness 
can  never  lose  its  appeal,  obscured  though  it  is 
by  the  now  antiquated  imagery  in  which  it  is 
expressed. 


.* 


Bibliographical  Note 


409 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE 

Readers  who  wish  to  pursue  the  study  of  Revelation 
further  may  consult  the  following  books: 

General  discussions  on  the  apocalyptic  type  of  litera- 
ture and  thinking  will  be  found  in  F.  C.  Porter,  The  Messages 
of  the  Apocalyptical  Writers  (New  York,  1905);  E-  Schtirer, 
History  of  the  Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of  Jesus  Christ 
(New  York,  1891),  Div.  II,  Vol.  Ill;  R.  H.  Charles,  A 
Critical  History  of  the  Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life,  2d  ed.  (Lon- 
don, 1913) ;  S.  J.  Case,  The  Millennial  Hope  (Chicago,  1918). 
English  translations  of  the  Jewish  apocalypses  are  given  in 
the  second  volume  of  R.  H.  Chdirl^s,  Apocrypha  and  Pseude- 
pigrapha  (Oxford,  1913).  Recently  separate  editions  of 
several  of  these  documents  have  been  issued  in  less  expensive 
form  by  the  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge 

(London). 

For  introductory  matters  regarding  Revelation  see  F.  C. 
Porter,  article  **  Revelation,'*  in  Hastings,  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible  (New  York,  1902);  J.  Mofifatt,  Introduction  to  the 
Literature  of  the  New  Testament  (New  York,  1911),  pp.  483- 
514;  or  other  standard  New  Testament  introductions. 

The  most  complete  commentaries  employing  the 
historical  method  are  J.  Moffatt,  "The  Revelation  of 
St.  John  the  Divine,"  in  the  Expositor's  Greek  Testament 
(New  York  [n.d.]),  V,  279-494;  W.  Bousset,  Die  Ofen- 
barung  Johannis,  6.  Aufl.  (Gottingen,  1906);  H.  J.  Holtz- 
mann,  Hand-Commentar  zum  Neuen  Testament,  4.  Band,  3. 
Aufl.  (Tubingen,  1 908) ,  pp.  3  7  yS^o.  Historical,  allegorical, 
and  futuristic  interpretations  are  combined  in  H.  B.  Swete, 
The  Apocalypse  of  St.  John,  3d  ed.  (London,  1909),  but  the 
book  contains  a  wealth  of  historical  information. 

408 


Short  but  serviceable  commentaries  are  W.  H.  Simcox, 
The  Revelation  of  St,  John  [Cambridge  Greek  Testament] 
(Cambridge,  1893);  C.  A.  Scott,  The  Book  of  Revelation 
[New  Century  Bible]  (New  York,  1902);  J.  T.  Dean,  The 
Book  of  Revelation  [Handbooks  for  Bible  Classes  and 
Private  Students]  (Edinburgh,  1915). 

Special  discussions  worthy  of  note  are:  W.  M.  Ramsay, 
The  letters  to  the  Seven  Churches  of  Asia  (New  York,  1904); 
W.  Bousset,  The  Antichrist  Legend:  A  Chapter  in  Christian 
and  Jewish  Folklore  (London,  1896);  R.  H.  Charles, 
Studies  in  the  Apocalypse  (Edinburgh,  1913);  H.  Gunkel, 
Schdpfung  und  Chaos  in  Urzeit  und  Endzeit  (Gottingen, 
1895);  F.  Boll,  Aus  der  Ofenbarung  Johannis:  Hellenis- 
tische  Studien  zum  Welthild  der  Apokalypse  (Leipzig,  1914). 


/ 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Abbadon,  279,  281 

Abraham,  Apocalypse  of,  90  f. 

Abyss,  83,  no,  278  ff.,  363  f. 

Adonis,  12 

Advent  of  Christ,  its  nearness, 
187,  191,  197,  211,  219,  231, 
23s.  237,  239,  241,  333  f., 
336.    See  Messiah 

Aeneas,  108  f . 

Alexander  the  Great,  23, 68,  72 

Alexandria,  21 

Alford,  398 

Allegorical  interpretation  of 
Revelation,  391  ff .,  399, 404  f . 

Allegory,  used  by  apocalyptic 
writers,  154  ff.;  used  by 
John, 181  ff. 

Alogi,  388 

Alpha,  191,  197  f.,  379»  S^i 

Altar,  265,  274,  283 

Amos:  apocalyptic  in,  59;  use 
of  allegory  in,  154 

Angels:  of  the  churches,  209  f; 
fallen,  76;  media  of  revela- 
tions,  146;    in    Revelation, 

193  f. 
Antichrist,  115,  390,  396 

Antiochus  Epiphanes,  66, 68  ff., 

72,99 
Antipas,  i,  38,  219,  265 

Aphrodite,  12 

Apocalypse :  of  Abraham,  90  f . ; 

of  Baruch,  92  ff.;  of  Daniel, 

65  ff.;    of  Enoch,  75  ff.;    of 

.  Ezra,  94  ff.;  of  Peter,  118  ff. 


Apocalyptic  writings:  among 
Christians,  1 1 2  ff . ;  among 
Gentiles,  100  ff .;  among 
Jews,  58  ff.;  in  Mark,  113; 
m  the  prophets,  58  ff.;  in 
II  Thessalonians,  112.  Al- 
legory in,  154  ff.;  charac- 
teristic ideas  of,  131  ff.; 
circumlocutions  in,  158  f.; 
compared  with  prophecy, 
136;  currency  of,  57  ff.; 
dualism  in,  133  f.,  139; 
ethical  interest  of,  137; 
function  of,  125  ff.;  hymns 
in,  160;  literary  method  of, 
148  ff.;  numbers  in,  157  f.; 
philosophy  of  history  in, 
132  ff.;  prayers  in,  159; 
pseudonjmaity  of,  151  ff. 

Apollo,  281,  304 

Apostles,  false,  212  f. 

Artemis,  10 

Ascension  of  Isaiah,  114  f. 

Ashtart,  12 

Asia:  province  of,  2;  economic 
conditions  in,  5  f.;  inhab- 
itants of,  3;  religions  of,  8  ff .; 
social  conditions  in,  4 

Asklepios,  10  f.,  220 
Assumption  of  Moses,  86  f . 
Athena,  10 
Attis,  12 

Augustine,  392,  400 
Augustus,  IS,  20,  24  f.,  29 

Authorship  of  Revelation, 
200  ff. 


413 


414 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Babylon.    See  Rome 
Balaam,  219,  223 
Balak,  219,  223 
Banquet,    in    the    messianic 
kingdom,  242,  358  f. 

Barcochba,  21 

Banich:    Apocal5rpse  of,  92  ff. 

The  seer,  93  ff.;   dreams  of, 

141;  ecstasy  of,  144 

Beast,  a  priest  of  the  imperial 
cult,  316  ff.;  the  imperial 
monster,  310  ff.,  341  ff.  Date 
of  his  advent,  341  f.;  an 
object     of     worship,     237, 

311  ff.;     a    returned    Nero, 

312  f.;  ultimate  fate  of,  363, 
fate  of  his  worshipers,  3225. 

Belshazzar,  69,  71 

Bengel,  398 

Book,  a  record  kept  in  heaven: 
70,  82,  232  ff.,  25s  f.;  eaten 
by  John,  286  f.;  of  Life, 
311, 314 f.,  338;  sealed,  255  f. 

Bride  of  the  Lamb,  the  new 
Jerusalem,  358,  381 

Caligula,  21,  31 

Catacombs,  49 

Christ:  heavenly  dignity  of, 
254  ff.;  John's  visions  of, 
205  ff.,  254  ff.;  as  a  Lamb, 
257;  redemptive  work  of, 
19s  f.;  return  of,  15,  42; 
time  of  advent,  113  f.  See 
Messiah  and  Advent  of 
Christ 

Christians:  attitude  toward 
Jews,  14;  toward  pagans, 
13  f.,  36  ff.;  economic  status 
of,  4f.;  Roman  procedure 
against,  29  f.,  32  f.,  38,  47  f. 

Churches:  angels  of,  209  f.; 
warnings  to,  210  ff. 


Claudius,  19, 31 

Clement  of  Alexandria,  391 ,4o<5 

Commerce,     John's    attitude 
toward,  4  f.,  55, 231  f.,  240  f., 

349  ff. 
Cybele,  10 

Cyrus,  73 

Daniel:    Book  of,  65  ff.    The 
•  seer,  68  ff.;   ecstatic  visions 
of,  140,  143;    equipped  by 
the  Spirit,  145;  use  of  alle- 
gory by,  155 

Darius,  69 

Date    of    Revelation,    42  ff.; 
testimony  of  Irenaeus  to,  53 

Day  of  Jehovah,  64 

Death:   personified,  208,  263; 
the  second,  215,  218, 367, 370 

Decay  of  the  world,  81, 94  f .,  98 
"Deep  things"  of  Satan,  226, 

230 
Dionysos,  10 

Distress:  of  the  last  times, 
259  ff.,  273  ff.;  its  duration, 

305,  329  ^. 
Domitian,    48  ff.,    312,    320, 

343  ff. 
Donatists,  392 

Dragon,  302  ff.,  310 

Dream  of  Scipio,  107  f . 

Dreams:  a  source  of  revela- 
tion, 140  ff.;  of  Baruch,  141; 
of  Daniel,  140;  of  Enoch, 
141;  of  Ezra,  141  f. 

Ecstasy:  among  Christians, 
171  f.;  inducing  visions, 
143  f.;  of  John,  249;  of  the 
Sibyl,  103  f . 

Elect,  their  number  prede- 
termined, 91 


Index 


4IS 


Elijah,  one  of  the  two  wit- 
nesses, 294  f . 

Emperors,  succession  of,  338  ff . 

Emperor- worship:  an  affair  of 
Satan,  41;  a  demand  of  the 
beast,  313  ff.;  a  municipal 
cult,  26  f.;  a  provincial 
cult,  27  ff.;  in  the  province 
of  Asia,  23  ff.;  in  Rome, 
25  f.;  in  Pergamum,  220; 
relations  of  Christians  to, 
32  ff.;  relations  of  Jews  to, 
2of.,  31,  217 

End  of  the  world,  its  nearness, 
73  f.,  113,  123,  266,  284  ff. 

Enoch:    Book  of,  75  ff.;    use 

among  Christians,  84  f .  The 

seer,  75  f.;    dreams  of,  141; 

equipped  by  the  Spirit,  145; 

parables  of,  77  ff.;    Secrets 

of,  88  ff.,  366 
Ephesus,  the  city  of,  10, 12,  24, 

28;  message  to,  210  ff. 
Er,  his  visit  to  Hades,  105  f. 
Eshmun,  12 
Exile,  Babylonian,  72  f. 
Ezekiel,  60  ff.,  250 
Ezra:     Book    of,    94  ff.     The 

seer,  95;   dreams  of,  141  f.» 

visions  of,  144 

Flavia  Domitilla,  49 

Flavins  Clemens,  49 

Fornication,  of  Jezabel,  229  f.; 
in  Pergamum,  219,  222  ff.; 
in  Thyatija,  226 

Fourth  Ezra,  94  ff. 
Futuristic     interpretation    ol 
Revelation,  391,  3965. 

Gabriel,  71  f.,  74 
Gallio,  43 


Gehenna,  96.    See  Punishment 

and  Sheol 

Gentiles:  attitude  toward 
Christians,  35  ff.;  court  of, 
290  f.;  to  be  destroyed  by 
Christ,  230,  303,  360;  status 
in  the  new  Jerusalem,  377  ^. 

God:  the  judge,  369;  sover- 
eignty of ,  300  ff. ;  throne  of 
in  heaven,  61,  76,  250!. 

Gog,  367,  398 

Hades:  personified,  208,  263, 
370;  status  of  the  dead  in, 
102  f .    See  Lower  world 

Harmagedon,  334 

Heaven:  an  abode  of  the 
righteous,  77,  265;  glories  of, 
247  ff.;  opened  to  Ezekiel, 
60;  opened  to  John,  249  f.; 
Satan  ejected  from,  306  ff.; 
visited  by  seers,  144  f. 

Hermas,  Shepherd  of,  118  ff. 

Hezekiah,  Testament  of,  114?. 

Historical     interpretation 
Revelation,  400  ff.,  405  f . 

Horsemen:  from  the  East, 
282;  from  heaven,  259  ff. 

Hymns,  160 

Hystaspes,  Oracles  of,  118 

Interpretation  of  Revelation: 
allegorical,      391  ff.,      399» 

404  f.;  ancient,  387  ff-; 
futuristic,  391,  39^  ff., 
403  f.;      historical,     400  ff., 

405  f.;  history  of,  384  ff-; 
traditional  Protestant,  395  ff . 

Irenaeus,  53 

Isaiah,  59  f.,  63  f.;   Ascension 
of,  114  f.;  Vision  of,  115  f.  ' 
Ishtar,  12 


4i6 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Jaoel,  go 

Jerusalem:  fate  of  the  earthly, 

288  ff.;   fall  of  in  70  A.D.,  21. 

New   city   of,    61,    76,  83, 

96,    13s  f.»    237,    371  ff.; 

bride  of  the  Lamb,  358,  381 

Jews:  in  Asia,  3;  expulsion 
from  Rome,  18;  hostility 
toward  Christians,  33  ff., 
215  f.,  236;  protected  by 
Rome,  19  ff.;  special  privi- 
leges of,  12  f.;  synagogues  of , 
20;  worship  of,  13 

Jezabel  (Jezebel),  226  ff. 

Joel,  64  f . 

John:  a  Christian  prophet, 
118  ff.;  a  converted  Jew,  3, 
202;  confidence  of,  147  f., 
1 7  2  f , ;  dependence  upon 
predecessors,  139,  i7Sff-; 
equipment  of,  147  f.,  171  ff-? 
199  ff.,  381;  ecstasy  of,  249; 
final  exhortation  of,  382  f.; 
final  instructions  to,  378  ff.; 
hostility  toward  commerce, 

4  f-,  55,  231  f.,  240  f.;  349  ff-; 
identity  of,  200  f.;  literary 
method  of,  160  ff. 

Judgment:  final,  63  ff.,  70  f., 
76  f.,  91,3675.;  in  Assump- 
tion of  Moses,  87;  in  Enoch, 
79  f.  Prediction  of,  263  f ., 
325  ff.;  upon  the  emperor 
and  his  worshipers,  331  f.; 
upon   the   Roman   Empire, 

333  f. 
Julius  Caesar,  19,  24  f . 

Justin,  387 

Lamb,  Christ,  257;    marriage 

of,  358  f . 
Laodicea,  message  to,  238  ff. 

Last  times,  distresses  of,  64  f ., 
Qi,9Sf.,  112,  3o8f. 


Leto,  304 

Letter-writing,  191  f. 

Locusts,  from  the  abyss,  278  ff . 

Logos,  360,  362 

Lord  of  Spirits,  77  f.,  80,  147, 
160 

Lower  world,  visited:  by 
Aeneas,  108  f.;  by  Enoch, 
76;  by  Er,  105  f.;  by  Odys- 
seus, 102  f.;  by  Thespesius, 
109  ff.    See  Hades 

Luther,  397  f. 

Macedonians,  68 

Magical  power  of  names,  224  f., 
238,  362 

Magog,  367,  398 

Man  of  sin,  112 

Manna,  219,  224 

Martyrs :  their  place  in  heaven, 
265;  predestmed  number  of, 
266;  resurrection  of,  367 

Meats  offered  to  idols,  221  ff., 
229  f. 

Medes,  68,  72,  79 

Messiah,  imminent  advent  of, 
93,  98,  141,  187,  191,  197, 
211,  219,  231,  235,  237,  239, 

333  f.,   336,   358  f.,   378  f.; 

judgment  of,  80,  92,  326  f.; 
pre-existence  of,  78  f.;  resi- 
dence upon  earth,  96  f., 
135,  3635.;  Satan's  attack 
upon,  302  ff.;  triumph  of, 
359  ff .    See  Advent  of  Christ 

Messianic  banquet,  242,  358  f. 
Michael,  74,  209,  234,  306,  308 
Millennium,  41,  363  ff. 
Minos,  103 
Mithra,  12 
Montanism,  388 


Index 


417 


Morning  star,  227,  230,  379 

Moses,  Assumption  of,  86  f.; 

one  of  the  two  witnesses, 

294  f. 
Mother  of  the  Gods,  1 2 

Names,    magical    power    of, 

224  f.,  238,  362 
Nature,  convulsions  in,  275  ff. 
Nebuchadnezzar,  67  ff.,  92, 140 

Nero:  number  of  his  name, 
319;  a  persecutor  of  Chris- 
tians, 43  ff.;  his  return  ex- 
pected, 53, 115, 312  f.,  335  f., 
343  ff.;  his  status  in  the 
lower  world,  iii  f. 

Nicea,  24 

Nicolaitans,  214,  219,  223,  228 

Nicolas,  221 

Nicomedia,  25 

Odysseus,  102  ff. 
Omega,  191, 197  f.,  379, 381 
Oracles  of  Hystaspes,  118 
Origen,  391  f.,  400 

Parables,  of  Enoch,  77  ff. 

Parthians,  79,  262,  283,  335 

Patmos,  199,  203 

Paul,  10,  34,  42  f-,  45,  "2, 128, 
171  f.,  174,  189,  192,  198, 
212,  221,  228 

Pergamum:  the  city  of,  i,  lo, 
12,  25,  28,  38;  emperor- 
worship  in,  220;  message  to, 
218  ff. 

Persecution  of  Christians:  ex- 
pected by  John,  38  ff.,  55  f.; 
grounds  of,  32  ff.,  37  f. 
In  Asia,  47  ff.;  under  Domi- 
tian,  48  ff.;  under  Nero, 
43  ff.;  under  Trajan,  52 


Persians,  68,  72  f. 
Peter,  the  apostle,  45;  Apoca- 
lypse of,  118  ff. 
Philadelphia,  message  to,  234ff . 

Plagues  of  the  last  times,  91, 
329  ff. 

Prayers:  in  apocalyptic  writ- 
ings, 159;  of  the  saints,  254, 
274 

Priest  of  the  imperial  cult,  27  f ., 
4i,3i6ff. 

Prophecy:  apocalyptic  fea- 
tures in,  58  ff.;  Christian, 
188  ff.,  359,  380;  compared 
with  apocalj^tic,  136 

Prophetess,  104,  226  ff. 

Pseudonymity,  151  ff.;  of 
Daniel,  67;  of  Enoch,  75 

Punishment,  74,  78,  80,  88  f., 
iiof.,  120  f.,  135^-;  o^ 
angels,  76;  of  noted  sinners, 
103,  106;  place  of,  108 

Python,  304 

Ramiel,  141 

Redeemed,  heavenly  status  of, 
270  ff. 

Renewal  of  world,  78,  84,  96 

Resurrection  of  the  dead,  74, 
79,  94,  96,  135,  367,  370 

Revelation  of  John:  author- 
ship of,  200  ff.;  composite 
elements  of,  181,  401  f.; 
contents  of,  161  ff.;  date  of, 
42  ff.;  destination  of,  204  f.; 
literary  structure  of,  160  ff., 
place  of  composition,  204; 
purpose  of,  i,  187,  208  f.; 
typical  interpretations  of, 
3845.;   unity  of,  i78f. 

Rewards  awaiting  the  right- 
eous, 74,  76,  78,  80,  88,  91  f., 
94,  103,  106,  109,  120,  135  f. 


4i8 


The  Revelation  of  John 


Index  419 


/* 


Roma,  the  goddess,  24  f'>  «»© 

Roman  religion,  15  ff. 

Rome:  attitude  toward  Chris- 
tians, 22  f.;  toward  foreign 
cults,  17  ff.;  toward  Jews, 
18  ff.  Called  "Babylon," 
323  f.,  334, 340  f.;  commerce 
of,  349  ff.;  downfall  of  the 
city  predicted,  16,  97,  301  f., 

3361.,  340  ff.,  346  ff.,  352  ff.; 

expected  date  of  overthrow, 
341  f.;  guilt  of,  348;  identi- 
fication of,  337  ff.;  lamenta- 
tion over,  349  ff . 

Saints,  triumph  of,  320  f. 
Sardis,  city  of,  12;  message  to, 
231 

Satan:  attack  upon  the  Mes- 
siah, 302  ff.;  author  of 
paganism,  137  i.]  cause  of 
Rome's  hostility  to  Chris- 
tians, 41;  chained  down  in 
the  abyss,  363  f-;  the  "deep 
things"  of,  226,  230;  a 
dragon,  306;  ejection  from 
the  heavens,  306  ff.;  sphere 
of  activity,  X33;  synagogue 
of,  35,  215,  217, 234;  tempo- 
rary release  of,  368  f .;  throne 
of,  28,  219  f. 

Scipio,  dream  of,  107  f. 

Sealing  of  the  faithful,  267  ff . 

Second  death,  215,  218,  367  f. 

Secrets  of  Enoch,  88  ff.,  366 

Seer:  confidence  of,  147  f.; 
ecstatic  joumeyings  of, 
144  f .;  equipment  of,  139  ff.; 
experiences  of,  138;  function 
of,  57;  helped  by  angels, 
146;  inspired  by  the  Spirit, 
131  f.,  14s  f. 

Sheol,  76,  79  f .,  aSi 


Shepherd  of  Hennas,  118  ff. 

Sibyl,  104  f.,  "7 
Sibylline  Oracles,  X17 
Sicarii,  21,  217 
Sisyphus,  103 

"666,"  319 

Smyrna,  city  of,  10,  24,  28; 
message  to,  214  ff. 

Son  of  Man:  in  Daniel,  71; 
in  I  Enoch,  78  f.,  80;  in  the 
Gospels,  113 

Spirit  (Holy) ,  the  angel  of ,  1 1 7 ; 
inspiring  Ezekiel,  61;  in- 
spiring John,  199,  203,  250; 
inspiring  prophets,  189  f.; 
inspiring  seers,  145  f. 

Symbolism  of  names,  227 

Tammuz,  12 
Tantalus,  103 
Teiresias,  102 

Temple,  in  Jerusalem:  12,  31, 
83;  contributions  to,  20; 
desecrated  by  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  66,  73  f.;  de- 
struction of,  92,  290  ff.; 
in  heaven,  274,  302;  in  the 
new  Jerusalem,  374 

Testament  of  Hezekiah,  114  f. 

Thespesius,  109  ff. 

Throne:  of  God,  61,  76,  250  f.; 
of  Satan,  28,  219  f. 

Thyatira,  message  to,  225  ff. 

Tiberius,  19 

Ticonius,  392 

Tityos,  103 

Trajan,  52 

Trance:  experienced  by  seers, 
143  f.;  by  the  Sibyl,  116. 
5m  Ecstasy 


Tree  of  Life,  88,  375,  379 
Tribulation:     beginnings    of, 
243  ff.;     duration    of,    309, 
329  f.;   the  great,  272;  two 
periods  of,  305  f . 

Vespasian,  342  f. 

Vision  of  Isaiah,  115  f. 

Visions:  as  means  of  acquiring 
revelations,  142  ff.;  of  Abra- 
ham, 90  ff.;  of  Amos,  58; 
of  Baruch,  93  ff-,  1441  o^ 
Daniel,  68  ff.,  143;  of  Enoch, 


•  « I 


1 
>  •  I 


7Sff.,  88  ff.;  of  Ezekiel, 
60  ff.,  250;  of  Ezra,  95  ff-» 
144;  of  Hennas,  122  ff.;  of 
Isaiah,  59  f.;  of  John,  147  U 
199  ff.,  248ff.j  of  Peter, 
120  f.;  of  Scipio,  107!. 

Wtnesses,  the  two,  294  f . 
Woe,  the  last,  297  ff. 
World-  weeks,  83  f . 
Wormwood,  275,  277 

Zeus,  10,  66,  74i  220 


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